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Four black belt throwers (tori) and one black belt faller (uke) were filmed and analyzed in three-dimensions using two video cameras (JVC 60 Hz) and motion analysis software. Average linear momentum in the anteroposterior (x), vertical (y), and mediolateral (z) directions and average resultant impulse of uke's center of mass (COM) were investigated for three different throwing techniques; harai-goshi (hip throw), seoi-nage (hand throw), and osoto-gari (leg throw). Each throw was broken down into three main phases; kuzushi (balance breaking), tsukuri (fit-in), and kake (throw). For the harai-goshi and osoto-gari throws, impulse measurements were the largest within kuzushi and tsukuri phases (where collision between tori and uke predominantly occurs). Both throws indicated an importance for tori to create large momentum prior to contact with uke. The seoi-nage throw demonstrated the lowest impulse and maintained forward momentum on the body of uke throughout the entire throw. The harai-goshi and osoto-gari are considered power throws well-suited for large and strong judo players. The seoi-nage throw is considered more technical and is considered well-suited for shorter players with good agility. A form of resistance by uke was found during the kuzushi phase for all throws. The resistance which can be initiated by tori's push or pull allows for the tsukuri phase to occur properly by freezing uke for a good fit-in. Strategies for initiating an effective resistance include initiating movement of uke so that their COM is shifted to their left (for right handed throw) by incorporating an instantaneous "snap pull "with the pulling hand during kuzushi to create an opposite movement from uke. Key PointsThe degree of collision between the thrower (tori) and person being thrown (uke) may be a reflection of throwing power.The hip throw (harai-goshi) and leg throw (osoto-gari) created large collisions onto uke and are considered power throws well-suited for stronger and heavier players.The shoulder throw (seio-nage) created small collisions onto uke emphasizing the importance for skill rather than strength.A theoretical resistance to tori's pull was found during the kuzushi phase indicating a propensity for uke to freeze and allow tori to better fit into the throw during the tsukuri phase.

The purpose of the study was to develop an aerobic fitness assessment test for competitive Karate practitioners and describe the preliminary findings. Five well-trained, competitive Karate practitioners participated in this study. A protocol simulating common attack strikes used in competition Karate sparring was developed from video analysis. In addition, pilot testing established a specific sequence of strikes and timings to be used in the test. The time to perform the strike sequence remained the same, whilst the time between strike sequence performances was progressively reduced. The aim of the test was to increase intensity of exercise through a decrease in recovery. On two separate occasions, absolute and relative peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), peak ventilation (VEpeak), maximum heart rate (HRM), and time to exhaustion (TE) obtained during the test were recorded. Subjective feedback provided by the participants was positive in that participants felt the test accurately simulated actions of a competitive sparring situation, and as a result athletes felt more motivated to perform well on this test. There was no significant between test difference in absolute VO2peak, relative VO2peak, HRM and TE (p > 0.05), indicating a potentially high reproducibility with the new test for these variables (test 1-test 2 difference of 0.04 L·min(-1), 1 ml·kg(-1)·min(-1), -3 beats·min(-1), and 28 s; respectively). However, VEpeak displayed potentially less reproducibility due to a significant difference observed between tests (test 1- test 2 difference of -2.8 L·min(-1), p < 0.05). There was a significant relationship between TE and relative VO2peak (R(2) = 0.77, p < 0.001). Further developments to the test will need to address issues with work rate/force output assessment/monitoring. The new test accurately simulates the actions of competitive Karate sparring. Key PointsThis is the first attempt at an aerobic fitness test specific to competitive Karate practitionersAnecdotal reports are that the new test accurately simulates the actions used in competition KarateRelative VO2peak was significantly related to time to exhaustion, with 63.5% of the variance in time to exhaustion attributed to relative VO2peak.Test developments include the use of force plates and transducers to assess force/power output during the test.

The purpose of this study was to investigate trunk and knee strength in practitioners of hard-style martial arts. An additional objective was to examine reaction times in these participants by measuring simple reaction times (SRT), choice reaction times (CRT) and movement times (MT). Thirteen high-level martial artists and twelve sedentary participants were tested under isokinetic and isometric conditions on an isokinetic dynamometer. Response and movement times were also measured in response to simple and choice auditory cues. Results indicated that the martial arts group generated a greater body-weight adjusted peak torque with both legs at all speeds during isokinetic extension and flexion, and in isometric extension but not flexion. In isokinetic and isometric trunk flexion and extension, martial artists tended to have higher peak torques than controls, but they were not significantly different (p0.05). During the SRT and CRT tasks the martial artists were no quicker in lifting their hand off a button in response to the stimulus [reaction time (RT)] but were significantly faster in moving to press another button [movement time (MT)]. In conclusion, the results reveal that training in a martial art increases the strength of both the flexors and extensors of the leg. Furthermore, they have faster movement times to auditory stimuli. These results are consistent with the physical aspects of the martial arts. Key PointsMartial artists undertaking hard-style martial arts have greater strength in their knee flexor and extensor muscles as tested under isokinetic testing. Under isometric testing conditions they have stronger knee extensors only.The trunk musculature is generally higher under both conditions of testing in the martial artists, although not significantly.The total reaction times of the martial artists to an auditory stimulus were significantly faster than the control participants. When analysed further it was revealed that the decrease in reaction time was due to the movement time component of the total reaction time.The training involved for the practice of the hard-style martial arts increases the strength of muscles involved in kicking. This increased strength is not seen in the trunk muscles. Furthermore, martial artists have a faster response time; the cause of which appears to be only the faster movement time.

Sumo wrestling is unique in combat sport, and in all of sport. We examined the maximum aerobic capacity and body composition of sumo wrestlers and compared them to untrained controls. We also compared "aerobic muscle quality", meaning VO2max normalized to predicted skeletal muscle mass (SMM) (VO2max /SMM), between sumo wrestlers and controls and among previously published data for male athletes from combat, aerobic, and power sports. Sumo wrestlers, compared to untrained controls, had greater (p0.05) body mass (mean ± SD; 117.0 ± 4.9 vs. 56.1 ± 9.8 kg), percent fat (24.0 ± 1.4 vs. 13.3 ± 4.5), fat-free mass (88.9 ± 4.2 vs. 48.4 ± 6.8 kg), predicted SMM (48.2 ± 2.9 vs. 20.6 ± 4.7 kg) and absolute VO2max (3.6 ± 1.3 vs. 2.5 ± 0.7 L·min(-1)). Mean VO2max /SMM (ml·kg SMM(-1)·min(-1)) was significantly different (p0.05) among aerobic athletes (164.8 ± 18.3), combat athletes (which was not different from untrained controls; 131.4 ± 9.3 and 128.6 ± 13.6, respectively), power athletes (96.5 ± 5.3), and sumo wrestlers (71.4 ± 5.3). There was a strong negative correlation (r = - 0.75) between percent body fat and VO2max /SMM (p0.05). We conclude that sumo wrestlers have some of the largest percent body fat and fat-free mass and the lowest "aerobic muscle quality "(VO2max /SMM), both in combat sport and compared to aerobic and power sport athletes. Additionally, it appears from analysis of the relationship between SMM and absolute VO2max for all sports that there is a "ceiling "at which increases in SMM do not result in additional increases in absolute VO2max. Key PointsSumo wrestlers have a high absolute VO2max compared to untrained controls.However, sumo wrestlers have a low VO2max /kg of skeletal muscle mass compared to other combat sports, other strength/power sports, and untrained controls.The reason for this is unknown, but is probably related to alterations in sumo skeletal muscle compared to other sports.Based on the present and previous data, there appears to be a "ceiling "at which increases in skeletal muscle mass do not result in additional increases in absolute VO2max.

The purpose of this study was to assess relative total body fat and skinfold patterning in Filipino national karate and pencak silat athletes. Participants were members of the Philippine men's and women's national teams in karate (12 males, 5 females) and pencak silat (17 males and 5 females). In addition to age, the following anthropometric measurements were taken: height, body mass, triceps, subscapular, supraspinale, umbilical, anterior thigh and medial calf skinfolds. Relative total body fat was expressed as sum of six skinfolds. Sum of skinfolds and each individual skinfold were also expressed relative to Phantom height. A two-way (Sport*Gender) ANOVA was used to determine the differences between men and women in total body fat and skinfold patterning. A Bonferroni-adjusted alpha was employed for all analyses. The women had a higher proportional sum of skinfols (80.19 ± 25.31 mm vs. 51.77 ± 21.13 mm, p = 0. 001, eta(2) = 0.275). The men had a lower proportional triceps skinfolds (-1.72 ± 0.71 versus - 0.35 ± 0.75, p0.001). Collapsed over gender, the karate athletes (-2.18 ± 0.66) had a lower proportional anterior thigh skinfold than their pencak silat colleagues (-1.71 ± 0.74, p = 0.001). Differences in competition requirements between sports may account for some of the disparity in anthropometric measurements. Key PointsThe purpose of the present investigation was to assess relative total body fat and skinfold patterning in Filipino national karate and pencak silat athletes.The results seem to suggest that there was no difference between combat sports in fatness.Skinfold patterning was more in line with what was reported in the literature with the males recording lower extremity fat.

The development of specific training designed to enhance physiological aspects of performance relies heavily on the availability of accurate and validity physiological data. In the combat sport of Wushu, katas are used to develop aerobic fitness. It is arguably important to assess and monitor heart rate (HR) and lactate (La) responses when designing effective training programs. The aim of this pilot study was to investigate heart rate and lactate responses to forms execution among Wushu combatants. Male elite modern Wushu athletes (n = 4) from a South Brazilian regional team participated in the study. Athletes were aged 22.5 ± 2.08 years old and had at least eight years of Wushu experience. Athletes carried out the Changquan and Daoshu forms in random order, HR and La were measured pre- and post-exercise. Results indicate that HR was 176 ± 3 and 176 ± 2 bpm and La was 4.38 ± 1.3 and 5.15 ± 1.07 mmol·l(-1) for Changquan and Daoshu forms, respectively. There were no significantly differences in HR and La between the two forms. HR values represent 89.2 ± 1.1 and 89.1 ± 1.8% of age-predicted maximal heart rate and lactate was near of 4 mmol·l(-1) point. In conclusion, training programs to Wushu combatants could target the range of physiological values cited above with no differences between two forms. Key PointsHeart rate and lactate responses are not significantly different between Changquan and Daoshu forms for Wushu combatants.The Wushu katas could be used to develop aerobic fitness.

The objectives were to identify the participation motivations and the perceived importance of certain participation factors in martial artists in the West Midlands, England, UK. A 28-item adapted version of the Participation Motivation Questionnaire with additional demographic questions was distributed to 30 martial arts clubs in the West Midlands region. Eight questions that assessed the perceived importance for participation of progression through grades, learning self defence skills, technical ability of instructors, cost of participating, development of confidence, underpinning philosophy and instructional style were included. Seventy-five questionnaires were returned from a total of 11 clubs from across representing practitioners in Tai Chi, Karate, Kung fu, Aikido, Jeet Kune Do, British Free Fighting, Taekwon-Do and Jujitsu. Results indicated that the rank order in terms of participation motives was: 1-Affiliation; 2-Friendship; 3-Fitness; 4-Reward/status; 5-Competition; 6-Situational and 7-Skill development. Participants who trained for more than 4 hours per week placed greater importance on the underpinning philosophy of the martial art. Findings suggest that whilst there is a gender discrepancy in participation level, once engaged, females were equally committed to weekly training. The 'style' of the instructor is of paramount importance for enhancing student motivation to participate. High volume practitioners would appear to be fully immersed in the holistic appreciation of the martial art through increased value placed on its underpinning philosophy. Key PointsWhilst there is a gender discrepancy in participation level, once engaged, females were equally committed to weekly training.The four most important participation motivations evident were 'Affiliation', 'Fitness', 'Skill Development' and 'Friendship'.The three least influential motives were 'Rewards/status; 'Situational' and 'Competition'. " There were no significant gender or experience differences for any of the emergent motivational factors.Instructor 'style' is of paramount importance for enhancing student motivation to participate.

The purpose of this study was to measure power values generated in elite karate fighters during brief high intensity cycle ergometry when resistive forces were derived from total - body mass (TBM) or fat - free mass (FFM). Male international karate practitioners volunteered as participants (n = 11). Body density was calculated using hydrostatic weighing procedures with fat mass ascertained from body density values. Participants were required to pedal maximally on a cycle ergometer (Monark 864) against randomly assigned loads ranging from 70 g·kg(-1) - 95 g·kg(-1) (using a TBM or FFM protocol) for 8 seconds. The resistive force that produced the highest peak power output (PPO) for each protocol was considered optimal. Differences (p0.05) in peak power outputs were found between the TBM and FFM experimental condition (1164 ± 137 W vs. 1289 ± 145 W respectively). Differences were also recorded (p0.01) between pedal velocity and applied resistive forces (127 ± 8 rpm vs. 142 ± 7 rpm; 6.6 ± 1 kg vs. 5.5 ± 1 kg, respectively). No differences (p0.05) were observed between time to PPO, or heart rate when the TBM and FFM protocols were compared. The findings of this study suggest that when high intensity cycle ergometer resistive forces are derived from FFM, greater peak powers can be obtained consistently in karate athletes. Resistive forces that relate to the active muscle tissue utilised during this type of exercise may need to be explored in preference to protocols that include both lean and fat masses. The findings have implications for both exercise prescription and the evaluation of experimental results concerning karate athletes. Key PointsMethods for quantifying and measuring high intensity performance using high intensity cycle ergometry have received considerable attention in recent years.The assumption has been that the relationship between total - body mass (TBM) and fat - free mass (FFM) is the same.However, variations in body composition between participants may under or over estimate cradle resistive forces used in high intensity cycle ergometry power assessment.This may lead to spurious calculations of power.The findings of this study demonstrate that the total capacity, power and relative contribution of the energy systems involved during experimental high intensity cycle ergometer exercise need re - evaluating.

This case study investigated relationships between personality, mood states changes, coping strategies, self-set goals, and self-efficacy in an elite judo player. A transactional perspective of psychological responses over time was used to guide data analysis. The ambient mood is proposed to contribute to the interpretation of, and reaction to, events during competition, which lead to subsequent emotional responses. A male international Judo player completed a number of self-report measures before and during a 4-contest tournament. Measures included the EPQ, MCOPE, Brunel Mood Scale, self-set goals, and self-efficacy for goal attainment. State measures were completed after every contest. Results indicated high scores of self-efficacy to achieve performance goals and outcome goals. Pre-competition mood results indicated high scores on the Vigor and Anger subscales with moderate scores for Tension, and zero scores for Depressed mood, a mood profile that remained relatively stable after winning his first two contests. After losing his third contest, he reported symptoms of Depressed mood and indicated using self-blame as coping strategy during the contest. Before the fourth contest, he coped by using planning and increasing effort. These coping strategies were associated with reductions in Depressed mood and increases in Vigor. After finding out his next contest was against a former World Championship bronze medalist, self-set goals became performance and process with no outcome goal. On losing this contest, scores on the Anger and Depression subscales increased sharply, Fatigue scores increased slightly and Tension and Vigor reduced. Self-blame was used as a coping strategy when experiencing unpleasant emotions. Findings suggest that self-blame was associated with negative psychological states comprising depressed mood. Increasing effort and planning were associated with positive psychological states. Collectively, findings emphasize the value of using a transactional design to explore mood changes over time, and future research should investigate the effectiveness of applied interventions. Key PointsFindings demonstrate the transient nature of mood states during competition.The paper proposes a transactional model of mood, which facilitates the exploration of mood changes over time.Mood states at one point in time will influence the interpretation of situational factors, which combine with emotional responses to form subsequent mood states.Findings support the notion that a difference between the perceived progress toward a goal and the internally expected rate of progress will elicit an emotional response.

MuayThai is a combat sport with a growing international profile but limited research conducted into judging practices and processes. Problems with judging of other subjectively judged combat sports have caused controversy at major international tournaments that have resulted in changes to scoring methods. Nationalistic bias has been central to these problems and has been identified across a range of sports. The aim of this study was to examine nationalistic bias in MuayThai. Data were collected from the International Federation of MuayThai Amateur (IFMA) World Championships held in Almaty, Kazakhstan September 2003 and comprised of tournament results from 70 A-class MuayThai bouts each judged by between five and nine judges. Bouts examined featured 62 competitors from 21 countries and 25 judges from 11 countries. Results suggested that nationalistic bias was evident. The bias observed equated to approximately one round difference between opposing judges over the course of a bout (a mean of 1.09 (SE=0.50) points difference between judges with opposing affilations). The number of neutral judges used meant that this level of bias generally did not influence the outcome of bouts. Future research should explore other ingroup biases, such as nearest neighbour bias and political bias as well as investigating the feasibility adopting an electronic scoring system. Key PointsNationalistic bias is evident in international amateur MuayThai judging.The impact on the outcome of bouts is limited.The practice of using a large number of neutral judges appears to reduce the impact of nationalistic bias.

The purpose of this study was to identify the profile of the Olympic champions and the other competitors who were involved in the Games. The information on each of the athletes was obtained from the "Official Site of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games, www.olympics.com/eng/sports/TK "and included weight category, weight, height, age, points obtained, warnings, deduction point, defensive/offensive kicks and punches. One hundred and two athletes competed (54 males and 48 females) in the Games. The mean average age and BMI (Body Mass Index) of 16 male winners was 24.4 ± 3.3 years and 21.9 ± 2.4 respectively compared to 25.2 ± 4.3 years and 22.8 ± 3.3 for the 38 male non-winners. The mean average age and BMI of the 16 female winners was 23.1 ± 3.9 years and 20.8 ± 2.3 respectively compared to 24.9 ± 4.7 years and 21.3 ± 2.7 for the 32 female non-winners. For all four types of athletes, offensive kicks accounted for at least 52% of the techniques to score a point. Ninety-eight percent of all techniques used to score were kicks. Although not statistically significant, winners overall tended to be younger in age and taller with slightly lower BMI than their weight category average. Taking into account the literature cited in this article, future studies should be designed to examine the relationship between performance and functional variables such as muscle power, muscle endurance, reaction time and aerobic capacity. Key PointsWinners tended to be younger in age and taller with slightly lower BMI than their weight category average.An offensive technique was used to score slightly more often than a defensive one.Overall, 98% of all techniques used to score were kicks.

Despite worldwide popularity of amateur boxing, research focussed on the physiological demands of the sport is limited. The physiological profile of Senior and Junior England international amateur boxers is presented. A gradual (8 to 21-days) and rapid (0 to 7-days) phase of body weight reduction was evident with 2.2 ± 0.3 % of the 7.0 ± 0. 8 % weight loss occurring over the final 24-hours. An increase in body weight4% was observed following a recovery period. High urine osmolality values (1000 mOsm·kg(-1)) were recorded during training and competition. High post-competition blood lactate values (13.5 mmol·l(-1)) highlighted the need for a well-developed anaerobic capacity and the importance of not entering the ring in a glycogen depleted state. The aerobic challenge of competition was demonstrated by maximum heart rate values being recorded during 'Open' sparring. Mean body fat values of 9-10% were similar to those reported for other weight classified athletes. Normal resting values were reported for hematocrit (Senior 48 ± 2 % and Junior 45 ± 2 %), haemoglobin (Senior 14.7 ± 1.0 g·dl(-1) and Junior 14.5 ± 0.8 g·dl(-1)), bilirubin (Senior 15.3 ± 6.2 µmol·l-1(-1)) and ferritin (Senior 63.3 ± 45.7 ng·ml(-1)). No symptoms associated with asthma or exercise-induced asthma was evident. A well- developed aerobic capacity was reflected in the Senior VO2max value of 63.8 ± 4.8 ml·kg(-1)·min(-1). Senior lead hand straight punching force (head 1722 ± 700 N and body 1682 ± 636 N) was lower than the straight rear hand (head 2643 ± 1273 N and body 2646 ± 1083 N), lead hook (head 2412 ± 813 N and body 2414 ± 718 N) and rear hook (head 2588 ± 1040 N and body 2555 ± 926 N). It was concluded that amateur boxing performance is dependent on the interplay between anaerobic and aerobic energy systems. Current weight making methods may lead to impaired substrate availability, leading to reduced competitive performance and an increased risk to a boxers health. Key PointsSenior England international amateur boxers decrease 6.0-8.3 % (7.0 ± 0.8 %) body weight over a 21-day pre-contest period by employing passive and active weight making methods.Urine osmolality values1000 mOsm·kg(-1) are recorded during training and competition.Senior and Junior England international amateur boxers experience high post contest blood lactate values (Seniors 13.5 ± 2 mmol·l(-1) and Juniors 14.1 ± 2 mmol·l(-1) under the current 4 rounds x 2-minute contest format.Senior England international amateur boxers have a high relative VO2max of 63.8 ± 4.8 ml·kg(-1)·min(-1)Senior England international amateur boxers have a straight and hook punch force2400 N, except for the straight lead hand to the head and body.

Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) competitions were introduced in the United States with the first Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) in 1993. In 2001, Nevada and New Jersey sanctioned MMA events after requiring a series of rule changes. The purpose of this study was to determine the incidence of injury in professional MMA fighters. Data from all professional MMA events that took place between September 2001 and December 2004 in the state of Nevada were obtained from the Nevada Athletic Commission. Medical and outcome data from events were analyzed based on a pair-matched case-control design. Both conditional and unconditional logistic regression models were used to assess risk factors for injury. A total of 171 MMA matches involving 220 different fighters occurred during the study period. There were a total of 96 injuries to 78 fighters. Of the 171 matches fought, 69 (40.3%) ended with at least one injured fighter. The overall injury rate was 28.6 injuries per 100 fight participations or 12.5 injuries per 100 competitor rounds. Facial laceration was the most common injury accounting for 47.9% of all injuries, followed by hand injury (13.5%), nose injury (10.4%), and eye injury (8.3%). With adjustment for weight and match outcome, older age was associated with significantly increased risk of injury. The most common conclusion to a MMA fight was a technical knockout (TKO) followed by a tap out. The injury rate in MMA competitions is compatible with other combat sports involving striking. The lower knockout rates in MMA compared to boxing may help prevent brain injury in MMA events. Key PointsMixed martial arts (MMA) has changed since the first MMA matches in the United States and now has increased safety regulations and sanctioning.MMA competitions have an overall high rate of injury.There have been no MMA deaths in the United States.The knockout (KO) rate in MMA appears to be lower than the KO rate of boxing matches.MMA must continue to be supervised by properly trained medical professionals and referees to ensure fighter safety in the future.

For judo players, as in many sports activities, strength development has become an important element of performance. However, this should not be done separately from the development of technique. Specific strength training is thus used for the controlled strengthening of specific muscles or muscle groups, corresponding to the movement in a competitive situation. In line with this, the use of a judo specific apparatus is proposed. The aim of this study is to analyze the progress of a group of judokas after a training program with the apparatus. The results have shown that, using the apparatus, the heaviest weight achieved using the throwing technique is greater. In addition, the judokas' technique improves as a consequence of this training program. This judo specific apparatus could therefore be used to complement traditional judo training. Key PointsJudo, strength training, machine, technical progress.

The study used semi-structured interviews to explore the views of three high performance kickboxers regarding the contribution of psychology to the development and maintenance of expert performance within kickboxing. The results provide a useful insight into the experiences of high performance kickboxers, identifying those mental skills and psychological attributes that are perceived to contribute to success. Participants identified seven mental skills that they believed to be linked to success in kickboxing; 1) effective use of self-talk, 2) relaxation, 3) heightened concentration, 4) self-regulation of arousal, 5) goal setting, 6) coping with being hit, and 7) imagery. Three psychological characteristics were identified by all participants as contributing to success, 1) high self-efficacy, 2) highly motivated and 3) mental toughness. Although not specifically identified by participants, it is suggested that a fourth psychological characteristic was also apparent. Participants demonstrated varying degrees of emotional intelligence thorough their ability to monitor and manipulate their emotional states prior to and during competition. Martial artists used a number of long and short-term psychological strategies in preparing for competition. Furthermore, whilst mental skills were not systematically practiced, all participants endeavored to integrate some form of mental training within physical training. It is recommended that sport psychologists help martial artists develop and refine individualized mental training routines, assisting with the formal integration of psychological training into physical training. Martial artists spend the majority of their time practicing as opposed to competing. As such, the integration of mental skills training within physical training may help ensure quality practice, and facilitate the effective transfer of mental skills into competition. Key PointsPerceptions of the contribution of psychology to success in high performance kickboxing was explored using semi-structured interviews.Seven mental skills and three psychological attributes were collectively identified by participants, which they perceived as being linked to success.The need to integrate mental skills training into physical training was identified. This is necessary to optimise training effectiveness, and as such should be a key objective of applied sport psychologists.

Previous research has demonstrated the importance of isometric maximal strength (PF) and rate of force development (RFD) in a variety of athletic populations including track cyclists and track and field athletes. Among coaches and sports scientists there is a lack of agreement regarding how much strength is required for optimal performance in most sports. The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between measures of PF, RFD and one repetition maximum (1RM) strength with other variables that might contribute to successful performance in collegiate wrestlers. Eight men (M = 20.0, SD = 0.4 years; Height M = 1.68, SD = 0. 13 m; Mass M = 78.0, SD = 4.2 kg) who were Division III college wrestlers participated in this study. They were tested for PF using the isometric mid thigh pull exercise. Explosive strength was measured as RFD from the isometric force-time curve. The 1RM for the squat, bench press and power clean exercises were determined as a measure of dynamic strength. Vertical jump height was measured to determine explosive muscular power. The wrestlers also ranked themselves and the coaches of the team also provided a ranking of the athletes. Correlations between the variables were calculated using the Pearson product moment method. Results indicated strong correlations between measures of PF and 1RM (r = 0.73 - 0.97). The correlations were very strong between the power clean 1RM and PF (r = 0.97) and squat 1RM and PF (r = 0.96). There were no other significant correlations with other variables apart from a strong correlation between RFD and coaches ranking (r = 0.62). Findings suggest that isometric mid thigh pull test does correlate well with 1RM testing in college wrestlers. RFD does not appear to be as important in college wrestlers. The isometric mid thigh pull provides a quick and efficient method for assessing isometric strength in athletes. This measure also provides a strong indication of dynamic performance in this population. The lack of strong correlations with other performance variables may be a result of the unique metabolic demands of wrestling. Key PointsIn Division III collegiate wrestlers the isometric mid thigh pull test correlates well with 1RM testing.Rate of Force Development does not appear to be as important in college wrestlers.The lack of strong correlations with other performance variables may be a result of the unique metabolic demands of wrestling.

In an attempt to test the conceptual model by Lane and Terry, the purposes of this study were 1) to assess mood states in non-depressed and depressed young karate athletes; 2) to assess mood states in relation to performance in young karate athletes. The participants were recruited from the 2004 Malaysian Games (72 males, 19.20 ± 1.16 years; 37 females, 18.78 ± 0.88 years). The athletes were divided into winners (medalists) and losers. The Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) was administered prior to the start of competition. MANOVA was employed to treat the data, while Pearson correlations were calculated for mood states in each depressed mood group and by gender. In terms of non-depressed and depressed mood, tension in the females was higher in the depressed group (5.61 ± 3.02 vs. 3.11 ± 1.90, p = 0.026, eta(2) = 0.133), as was fatigue (3.64 ± 2.61 vs. 0.89 ± 1.69, p = 0.006, eta(2) = 0.199). Tension in the males was higher in the depressed group (4.41 ± 2.52 vs. 1.50 ± 1.55, p0.001, eta(2) = 0.215), as was anger (1.43 ± 1.88 vs. 0.25 ± 1.00, p = 0.019, eta(2) = 0.076). The highest associations among mood subscales were between anger and depression (r = 0.57), and between depression and fatigue ( r = 0.55) in depressed males. The female winning karateka scored higher on anger (3.08 ± 2.96 vs. 1.29 ± 2.24, p = 0.046, eta(2) = 0.109). The highest correlations between mood dimensions in depressed females were between depression and anger (r = 0.85) and between depression and confusion (r = 0.85). Contrary to previous research on the influence of depression on anger, only the female winners scored higher on anger. Several negative mood dimensions were higher in both male and female depressed groups, lending some support to the conceptual model advanced by Lane and Terry. Key PointsTo date, there is no information about the relationship between mood and martial arts performance in Malaysian athletes.There might be cultural differences in the way Malaysian athletes respond to psychological questionnaires.The mood-performance and depressed mood-non-depressed mood relationships might be mediated by age.

Previous research has shown how dynamical systems theory provides a relevant framework for investigating decision-making behavior in sport. The aim of this study was to adopt concepts and tools from nonlinear dynamics in examining effects of boxer-target distance and perceived punching efficiency on emergent decision-making during a typical practice task in boxing. Results revealed the existence of critical values of scaled distances between boxers and targets for first time appearance and disappearance of a diverse range of boxing actions including jabs, hooks and uppercuts. Reasons for the diversity of actions were twofold: i) abrupt (qualitative) changes in the number of the possible punches, i.e. motor solutions to the hitting task; and ii), fine modification of the probabilities of selecting specific striking patterns. Boxers were able to exploit the emerging perception of strikeability, leading to a changing diversity of selected actions and a cascade of abrupt changes in the perceptual-motor work space of the task. Perceived efficiency of a punching action by the participants also changed as a function of the scaled distance to a target and was correlated with the probability of occurrence of specific boxing actions. Accordingly, scaled distance-dependent perceived efficiency seems an important perceptual constraint in the training task of punching a heavy bag in boxers. Key PointsDuring the practicing with static (i.e. non moving) heavy bags novice boxers' perceptual-action system is sensitive to the scaled distance and efficiency informational constraints. These interdependent constraints shape the action behaviour of the novice boxers;During heavy bag practice novice boxers are subject to a kind of discovery learning by exploring the efficiency of their motor repertoire when changing the performer - target distances;The region close to D = 0.6 maximizes the flexibility of switching among different types of punching actions and is optimal for practicing the temporal couplings between all types of boxing actions;Strategic positioning among boxers spontaneously emerges under the pressure of the key constraints revealed in these research. Applying practice strategy that emphasizes learning in which trainees would themselves explore, discover and thus adapt to the information - movement demands of diverse sparring situations is thus of great importance.