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Статья посвящена определению значения актов Международной организации труда для российской правовой системы. В научной статье проанализированы некоторые конвенции МОТ, ратифицированные Российской Федерацией, и приведены конкретные примеры имплементации норммеждународных договоров РФ в национальную систему права. В качестве примеров использованыКонвенции МОТ №122, 132, 175. Вывод статьи: ратифицированные российским государством конвенции МОТ существенно повлияли на внешний облик и содержание основных институтов российского трудового права. Общеобязательность указанных международных документов потребоваланеукоснительного соблюдения положений конвенций МОТ и приведения национального права в соответствие международным принципам регулирования трудовых правоотношений.

В статье прослеживается зарождение и эволюция правовой системы Кыргызской Республики. Показано влияние национального менталитета на источники права и юридическую практику в даннойстране на протяжении столетий. Автор утверждает, что нельзя однозначно судить о том, чья правоваякультура оказалась выше — оседлых племен или кочевых — на территории нынешнего Кыргызстана.Образ жизни влиял на уровень правовой культуры народа, но неоднозначно. Оседлое население имело свою развитую правовую культуру — они сумели создать инфраструктуру жизнеспособных городов, завели судебную систему, поддерживали порядок в многочисленных ремесленных мастерскихи на строительстве оросительных систем. Культурной обработке подвергались даже склоны предгорий, куда подводилась вода для полива через подготовленные арыки по крутым склонам гор. А кочевники научились воспроизводить уклад своей жизни в постоянных разъездах, ладить с соседнимиплеменами, успешно торговать, регулировать денежное обращение.

В статье исследуются основные аспекты, касающиеся организации первоначального этапа расследования неправомерного оборота средств платежей. Первоначальные тактические действия следователя зависят от способа совершения неправомерного оборота средств платежей и от предметапреступного посягательства, так как виды служб в рамках взаимодействия в доследственной проверке могут быть различными. Для первоначального этапа характерны определенные черты, которыеспецифичны при расследовании неправомерного оборота средств платежей. Своевременные тактические действия следователя должны быть направлены на выявление как основных свидетелей, таки самого подозреваемого, у которого при необходимости осуществляется выемка документов и электронных средств платежей при наличии. Основным отправным «пунктом» на первоначальном этапеявляются материалы доследственной проверки, поступившие от сотрудников УЭБ и ПК. Обозначена значимость оперативно-розыскных мероприятий, которые необходимы при установлении личности подозреваемых.

Статья посвящена исследованию правовой конструкции «цифровой рубль», определению ее правовой природы и соотношению с иными категориями, такими как «цифровые права», «цифровая валюта», «цифровые активы». Анализируются основные черты оборотоспособности указанных объектов. Отмечается, что цифровые финансовые активы являются имущественным правом, не являясьпри этом валютой или средством платежа, а цифровая валюта признается имуществом. Цифроваявалюта — это финансовый инструмент, выполняющий функции: средства обмена, меры стоимости,средства накопления, не имеющий статуса законного платежного средства, существующий в электронной форме. Делается вывод, что в настоящее время российское законодательство рассматриваетцифровые валюты в качестве «имущества для отдельных целей». Другим цифровым финансовым инструментом является цифровой рубль. Это разновидность валюты, существующей в цифровой форме,признанной государством в качестве законного платежного средства. Главным признаком цифрового рубля является возможность его централизованной эмиссии Банком России. Это разновидностьбезналичных денежных средств, которыми можно рассчитываться только путем перевода на специальной платформе Банка России. При этом в отличие от зарубежных правопорядков, отечественныйзаконодатель не пошел по пути отнесения цифрового рубля к цифровой валюте. Отсутствие четкойпонятийной базы применительно к вновь введенным финансовым инструментам, недостаточная регламентация правил их оборота вызывают на практике вопросы, что свидетельствует о необходимости совершенствования правового регулирования в исследуемой сфере.

В статье исследуются проблемы, связанные с преодолением в нормотворчестве и правоприменительном процессе противоречий, неясности, неопределенности норм законодательства, пробеловв них. Обращено внимание на такой юридический инструмент, как применение принципа аналогиизакона и аналогии права. Внесены предложения по совершенствованию законодательства и практики, в частности о применении принципа аналогии закона и аналогии права, даже если это не предусмотрено в конкретном акте законодательства. Обосновывается идея о допустимости аналогии закона и аналогии права в деликтном законодательстве, которое содержит бланкетные нормы, еслив результате применения данного института смягчается или устраняется ответственность.

Российская Федерация — демократическое государство, где источником власти признается еемногонациональный народ. Публичная власть народом осуществляется непосредственно и опосредованно через органы публичной власти. Институты гражданского общества призваны осуществлятьобщественный контроль за принимаемыми органами государственной власти и местного самоуправления решениями. Созданная правовая база предусматривает разные формы и механизмы осуществления общественного контроля. В качестве демократического института гражданского обществаи общественного контроля закрепляется независимая антикоррупционная экспертиза. Она имеетбольшое значение, поскольку содействует открытости органов власти, выступает как профилактическая мера борьбы с коррупцией и является формой общественного контроля за правотворческойдеятельностью органов и должностных лиц. Ценность независимой антикоррупционной экспертизывыражается в обособлении от властных структур. В научной статье отмечается необходимость развития данного института и предлагаются меры по его совершенствованию.

В статье подведены основные итоги работы Международного круглого стола «Цифровое общество, тенденции, возможности, риски» в рамках Международной конференции «Народы БРИКС выбирают жизнь». Сформулированы предложения по совершенствованию системы мер, направленныхна обеспечение информационной безопасности и противодействие киберпреступности на международном уровне, в рамках БРИКС, на федеральном и региональном уровнях.

В статье рассматриваются проблемы применения норм уголовного и уголовно-процессуального права при расследовании уголовных дел, связанных с применением насилия в периоды перехода под российскую юрисдикцию Республики Крым, города федерального значения Севастополя, Донецкой, Луганской Народных Республик, Запорожской, Херсонской областей. Обращается вниманиена то, что уголовное, уголовно-процессуальное законодательство Российской Федерации имеет существенные отличия от аналогичного законодательства Украины. Указываются особенности уголовныхи уголовно-процессуальных норм Украины и России, проблемы их применения, пути преодоления этихпроблем в условиях переходного периода и сложившейся в связи с этим правовой неопределенности.Анализ этих вопросов представляет интерес с теоретической точки зрения и востребован практически.

Статья посвящена вопросам обеспечения исполнения в отношении лиц, отбывающих пожизненное лишение свободы, положений института условно-досрочного освобождения от дальнейшего отбывания наказания и их ресоциализации.

В статье осуществлен в кратком виде анализ динамики законодательства о судебном конституционном контроле в Республике Беларусь. Обращено внимание на позитивные изменения в даннойсфере, а также на некоторые пробелы в конституционном законодательстве. Подчеркнута необходимость более широкого восприятия института конституционной жалобы.

INTRODUCTION. The academic value of this article lies in augmenting the scientific understanding of the role of integration unions in healthcare and the methods and means of combating pandemics and epidemics at an integration level. This is achieved by addressing the research objective: to identify the legal and institutional structures and mechanisms existing at the level of integration unions for combating pandemics and their consequences, and to assess their effectiveness. The research objectives are defined as follows: to examine the actions of integration unions in combating the pandemic from legal and material- economic perspectives; to determine the actual role of integration unions in combating pandemics and similar threats to public health for the further improvement of international cooperation and Eurasian integration; to evaluate the compliance of the actions of integration union institutions with their founding documents; and to develop ways to improve integrations in the field of health protection based on the experience gained.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The methodological basis of the research is grounded in the general philosophical method of dialectics. Special and specific scientific methods applied include: the comparative legal method (comparing the legal systems and regulations of different integration unions, and the various measures taken in response to the pandemic), the sociological method (examining the impact of pandemic conditions on society in different integration environments), and the axiological method (studying values as the foundation of integration unions, their reflection, and influence on making internationally significant decisions).RESEARCH RESULTS. In determining the effectiveness of the institutions, structures, and mechanisms of integration unions in ensuring epidemiological wellbeing, a significant role of integrations in counteracting pandemic and epidemiological threats to health has been identified. This is evidenced by the actions and measures taken by the EU and the EAEU during the recent COVID-19 pandemic. Aspects of cooperation between member countries (transport communication, coordination of sanitary measures, support of the economy and social sphere, information and experience exchange) and the institutions of these integration unions (European Commission, European Parliament, Eurasian Economic Commission) were dictated by their founding acts (TEU, TFEU, Treaty on the EAEU) and other documents.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. During the crisis, not only challenges requiring solutions in ensuring well-being (balance of freedoms and restrictions, rational allocation of resources, balance of national and integration interests) emerged, but also prospects for the future development of integrations (NextGenerationEU Plan, the emergence of a Global Digital Health Certification Network). Judicial practice was formed (lawsuits by the European Commission, work of the EAEU Court). Conclusions highlight the need to increase the resilience and centralization of EU healthcare systems, prepare the budget for potential future threats, which serves as a useful experience for Eurasian integration, and the importance of deepening integration, reforming existing institutions, and establishing interstate dialogue for the EAEU. The crisis became a catalyst for the development of integrations, the cause of the emergence of new conflicts and contradictions, the solutions of which determined the direction of evolution in the future.

INTRODUCTION. The article presents the evolution of legal regulation of the institution of enhanced cooperation as a legal form of flexible integration in European Union (EU) law. Flexible integration is a fairly widespread and objectively existing legal phenomenon in the practice of various integration associations. However, it is within the framework of EU law that the concept of enhanced cooperation has received the greatest development and legal regulation. This was largely due to the EU's desire to regularize and subordinate alternative forms of co natural that interstate cooperation within the framework of one or another integration cooperation acquires more and more complex character, and cooperation of the member states of an integration association within the framework of one or another direction of interaction has uneven and heterogeneous character. MATERIALS AND METHODS. The methodological basis of the study was traditional general scientific and special methods of cognition of legal phenomena: comparative legal method; method of scientific analysis; formal legal method; method of synthesis of social and legal phenomena.RESEARCH RESULTS. As a result of the analysis, the main stages of development of prerequisites and reasons for the legal regulation of enhanced cooperation have been identified and the periodization of the development of legal regulation of this institution has been proposed. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. Within the framework of the proposals on the periodization of the development of legal regulation of the institution of enhanced cooperation the following stages can be distinguished. The first stage can be labeled as “pre-Amsterdam”. This period is characterized by the formation of conceptual foundations of enhanced cooperation as a legal form of flexible integration. Within the framework of the “pre-Amsterdam” period there is an application of some form of flexible integration (Schengen, euro zone, etc.). The conceptualization of enhanced cooperation as a form of flexible integration was the basis for the normative-legal consolidation of this institution in the founding treaties of the EU. The next stage can be called “Amsterdam-Nicean”. Although the institution of enhanced cooperation received different names in the Amsterdam and Nice versions of the establishing treaties, it seems possible to unite this period into one: despite the normative-legal consolidation of enhanced cooperation as a form of flexible integration, the relevant norms of the establishing treaties have not actually received practical application. Finally, the next stage – the “Lisbon” period is characterized by the active ap[1]plication of the norms of the establishing treaties in the EU practice, including judicial.

INTRODUCTION. Environmental problems, today, in terms of the degree of harm to the environment and all living things on the Planet, it is not possible to compare with other problems. In January 1997, the United Nations (UN) General Assembly, in resolution 15/157, called on States to take decisive measures in matters of carrying out activities in all directions exclusively in accordance with the norms of international law, to implement international legal principles and take measures to join multilateral agreements in order to ensure the development of international law in general and all its branches. Most developed countries have set a course to ensure comprehensive security, the implementation of which is possible only if they take a clear course to ensure the protection of the population through a set of socio-economic, political and environ[1]mental measures. Ensuring environmental safety is an essential part of the problem of the security of the existence of the state as a whole, the resolution of which at the present stage of society's development is becoming as much a priority as ensuring military and economic security. Environmental safety is a set of conditions, processes and phenomena that ensure an ecological balance in the natural environment, the state of protection of all components of the natural environment, a category aimed at maximizing the protection of all natural objects and natural ecosystems from danger (man–made, biological, radiation, chemical, etc.). Environ[1]mental security is opposed to the uncontrolled economic growth that humanity is facing, as well as the complex problem of contradictions between the growing needs of society and the inability of the bio[1]sphere to provide them. In this regard, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, Antonio Guterres, speaking at the Conference on the Problems of the Oceans, rightly stressed the inability of human society to improve what it cannot appreciate. Today, there is no need to prove that environmental problems in terms of the degree of destructive impact and catastrophic consequences for all living things and the planet as a whole cannot be compared with problems of a different nature. The rapid increase in population, the development of new fertile territories, economic growth and, in this regard, the increasingly intensive use of Land spaces and resources have led to serious and sometimes irreversible consequences that negatively affect its condition. Humanity is faced with the difficult problem of contradictions between its growing needs and the inability of the biosphere to provide them.MATERIALS AND METHODS. This study uses the works of both Russian and foreign experts in the field of international environmental and international maritime law. The research used general scientific methods of cognition – analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction. Special legal methods were also used in the work – formal legal, technical legal, the method of legal analogy, as well as the comparative legal method.THE RESULTS OF THE STUDY. The analysis of the current practice on environmental safety issues allowed us to draw logical conclusions that, taking into account the need to resolve international and national environmental problems, modern society needs to form a new system of environmental relations, where international relations will be transformed towards giving the highest priority to the problem of environ[1]mental safety, including the primary requirements concerning the rational use of all natural objects: land, waters, forests, etc. in order to ensure the optimal possibility of realizing the ecological function of nature.DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS. The preservation of the natural environment is a complex task that requires not only legislative regulation at both the international and domestic levels, but also the formation of a correct public consciousness about its importance for the existence of all life on our Planet, the unity of ecosystems and the value of all components of the natural environment, which, among other things, will allow the world community to unite in ensuring cooperation on global environmental issues, creating a system of universal environmental safety.

INTRODUCTION. The article is devoted to the process of accession of new states to the European Union (EU). The authors try to demonstrate the evolution of the procedure for admitting new members since the formation of the European Communities and identify the main subjects of this procedure.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The current research is based on various international legal documents, including the founding treaties of the European Union, as well as acts of EU institutions and doctrinal sources.RESEARCH RESULTS. The research represents a retrospective analysis of the formation of the procedure for accession of new members to the European Communities/EU. It was found out that the norms of the founding agreement set only the general legal framework of the procedure, and its specific content differed through out the existence of the European integration project. The actual content of the accession process is determined by the member states, which, through the institutions of the Communities/Union, primarily the Council and the European Council, formulate the criteria and principles of accession. The Commission also plays a significant role in the process. The role of the European Parliament in this procedure is insignificant, although this institution tries to increase its influence throughout the negotiation process. DISCUSSION AND COCLUSION. To sum up, the accession procedure is typologically close to a special legislative procedure. Since its origin the accession of new states to the EU has been transformed from a rule-making procedure enshrined in the founding treaties to a set of various instruments and practices, including non-legal (political) ones.

INTRODUCTION. This article examines the space laws adopted by Luxembourg in 2017 and 2020, which allow private persons, subject to the conditions provided by these laws, to explore and use the natural resources of celestial bodies. At the same time, the authors proposed an international legal assessment of these laws.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The study of the designated laws of Luxembourg is based on the scientific works of domestic and foreign specialists in international space law, especially in terms of the analysis of previously adopted national legislation on space activities. Both general scientific methods of cognition and methods of legal sciences, including formal-legal and comparative-legal, are used. RESEARCH RESULTS. The analysis of Luxembourg laws in the general context of applicable international law presented in the article shows that these laws have basically adopted the new US legal space policy, initially outlined in the US Commercial Space Launch Competition Act of 2015. At the same time, Luxembourg laws on space activities have proposed a number of legal mechanisms that differ from the US ones, which further exacerbates the interstate competition for a more favorable legal environment for private persons to invest in economic activities in space. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. International legal issues of the use of outer space, including those affecting the status of celestial bodies, have long been resolved at the universal level, primarily on the basis of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. The situation has changed with the involvement of the United States since 2020 of an increasing number of states in a separate treaty-legal regime of space activities created by the Artemis Agreements, concluded by the United States with more than 40 states. These agreements, in turn, adopted the basic provisions of the new US legislation on natural resource activities in space, starting with the aforementioned US Law of 2015. The basic “space” laws of Luxembourg - the Law on the Exploration and Use of Space Resources of 2017 (which established the national legislative basis for the commercial exploration and use of natural resources of celestial bodies) and the Law on Space Activities of 2020 (which clarified this legislative system), while creating a favorable environment for investments by individuals and legal entities of this state in the development of natural resources of celestial bodies, also have negative international legal consequences for the community of states: Luxembourg, with these laws, supported the separate policy of the United States aimed at revising universal international space law, according to which the use of outer space, including celestial bodies, constituting the “patrimony of all mankind”, “is carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries” (Article I of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967).

INTRODUCTION. It is no understatement to say that the “rules-based international order” doctrine, as opposed to the “international order based on law”, has emerged as one of the most debated concepts in global politics during in the late ХХ and early ХХI centuries. This concept presents a framework where general rules of conduct for states, though not norms of jus cogens under general international law, are considered legally binding for all states and other participants in international relations. Consequently, it challenges the traditionally recognized supremacy of international law in governing these relations, seeking to erode established practices of international law-making. This doctrine is actively utilized by leading Western powers to substantiate their political positions and accuse strategic competitors of failing to adhere to these “rules” deemed as legally binding. Understanding the essence and origin of this doctrine is crucial in unraveling its significance. MATERIALS AND METHODS. The set of used methodological approaches encompass a range of general scientific and specialized methods, including historical analysis, formal logic, synthesis, as well as systemic and comparative legal methods.RESEARCH RESULTS. The research indicates that the doctrine of a rules-based international order entered international diplomatic discourse in the early 1990s, arising as a consequence of the collapse of the Soviet Union and the emergence of a unipolar world.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. The author reaches the conclusion that in the context of this emerging unipolarity, the United States deemed it appropriate to unilaterally (or at most in conjunction with its closest allies) dictate universally binding rules of conduct in international relations to the global community. The doctrine of a rules-based internation[1]al order provided the necessary scientific justification to validate such a policy. Initially, this doctrine garnered substantial support in international politics but subsequently faced a decline in its proponents, particularly with the shift towards a polycentric world order. While it continues to exist to some extent, the goals for which it was originally conceived have been largely nullified.

В статье освящаются особенности заключения и исполнения смарт-контрактов. Актуальность исследования механизма действия смарт-контрактов вызвана распространением использования технологии блокчейн, позволяющей приводить условия контракта в автоматическое исполнение. В статье уделяется внимание правовой позиции доктрины гражданского права относительно договорнойсущности смарт-контракта.

INTRODUCTION. This article analyzes in detail the most relevant provisions of the norms of private international law in the maritime transport of goods– the Hague, Hague-Visby, Hamburg and Rotterdam Rules. The development of maritime conventions on the carriage of goods by sea is studied from minimum standards establishing the obligations and responsibilities of the carrier to detailed unified legal systems regulating bill of lading. The development of regulation of the most important institutions is analyzed: the responsibility and duties of the carrier; the responsibility of the shipper; novels about transport records.MATERIALS AND METHODS. A special place in the study is given to conducting a comparative analysis, identifying differences between the provisions of maritime conventions on cargo transportation, as well as studying the main advantages and disadvantages of the convention fixing the basic rules aimed at regulating relations on cross-border cargo transportation by sea.RESEARCH RESULTS. The evolution of the provisions of the maritime conventions demonstrates their modernization in each subsequent version, with a tendency to expand the scope of territorial and substantive application, including more modern regulation of such important areas in the field of international transportation as carrier liability and the transfer of the burden of proof, detailing the regulation of the use of bills of lading. The thesis is substantiated that the mutual coexistence of three international regimes regulating maritime transport (the Hague, Hague-Visby and Hamburg Rules) violated its uniformity. The implementation of the provisions of the Rotterdam Convention, which contain detailed regulation of all parties to the contract for the carriage of goods by sea, in the future will contribute to filling legal gaps that until then were filled by the norms of national legislation, which, in turn, led to differences between the legal norms of individual countries and to a significant number of court proceedings. To solve the problem of international legal conflicts, in our opinion, it is necessary to reach a consensus on the ratification of an international act that would unify the rules for the international carriage of goods by sea. For sovereign states, it is relevant to adopt such regulations that will protect the interests of the relevant carriers, as well as the possibility of ratifying conventions with reservations and exceptions.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. The study substantiates the conclusion that it is necessary to improve the controversial norms of national legislation, as a result of which judicial proceedings arise, and the inclusion of the norms of modern international maritime conventions containing relevant and useful provisions for participants in these legal relations in the legislation of the Russian Federation, taking into account the mechanism of influence of foreign law on contractual and non-contractual relations between legal entities and individuals, and also on the basis of maintaining a balance of interests of large shipping and cargo companies in Russia.

INTRODUCTION. International unification of rules governing carriage of goods by sea has been of high importance. Historical, economic and political background as well as different approaches to adoption, ratification and entry into force of international legal acts impede harmonization of national laws. However, in spite of all these difficulties carriage of goods by sea is subject to international lawmaking which has a huge impact on the development of commercial intercourse and commercial transactions. Today the market of goods and services requires business to use the advantages of digital economy including electronic means of communication such as an electronic transport documents. An electronic bill of lading is one of the most important marine transport documents. As digital economy is moving forward digital transformation of carriage of goods by sea must not fall behind. Russian companies as well as international business community in general are in need for legal rules guiding digitalization of the bill of lading including its issuance and passage of title to the goods.MATERIALS AND METHODS. This study is based on international conventions, model laws, domestic and foreign legislation as well as some other legal acts. Various methods applied in the course of this study resulted in different technical and juridical means of research including analytical review, synthesis, induction, deduction and formal legal analysis.RESEARCH RESULTS. Scientific and practical aspects of this study have identified the need for the introduction of new forms of transport documents in international merchant shipping. The study has also demonstrated how to reach this target by implementing the rules of international conventions and national laws. The Rotterdam Rules have appeared to be the first codification of rules on electronic transport documents at an international level. However, they have not yet entered into force and are awaiting reflection in national legislation. As a bill of lading is a security its digital transformation requires hard work and true understanding of its legal nature. Lawmakers should take into account that a bill of lading is a document of title and can be used as a way to assign rights to the goods.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. The researcher comes to a conclusion that the adoption of international conventions, model laws and rules of foreign and domestic legislation leads to the introduction of new forms of transport documents to accompany international trade such as an electronic bill of lading. Impact of digital transformation of a bill of lading on carriage of goods by sea has been under scrutiny by national and foreign scholars whose opinions are reflected in this article. Both Russian and foreign laws have undergone legal reforms facilitating the passage of title to the goods from the consignor to the carrier under an electronic bill of lading. At the same time there is a need to protect legal interests of the owner of the goods and to invent new means of transferring the title to the goods. In this respect instruments offered by digital law and digital economy provide quite a good solution. For this reason legislation on electronic bill of lading must be subject to further development. An electronic bill of lading shall be qualified as a separate legal category which must go in parallel with digital law and may entail changes in Russian civil and shipping laws. The legal nature of a bill of lading is different from other types of securities as it is governed not only by civil legislation, but also by rules on carriage of goods by sea which is under great influence of international lawmaking. Implementation of international acts take different forms. This article illustrates how national laws reflect international rules on electronic transport documents specified in The UN Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or Partly by Sea 2008, also known as the Rotterdam Rules.

INTRODUCTION. The article examines the issue of such a widespread concept in the practice of communication on international “space” platforms as “space debris”, in particular, what, from the point of view of the norms of international space law, represents this word combination, introduced into international circulation in the 70‒90s of the last century when discussing the problem of contamination created by it in near-Earth space.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The material for the study are treaties of international space law, the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969, resolutions of the UN General Assembly, reports of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, as well as its Legal, and Scientific and Technical Subcommittees, statements of some delegations at their sessions, works of Russian and foreign scientists, materials of international structures, in particular the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee, US regulations. Carrying out a comparative analysis of normative and other documents of the named structures, as well as some provisions of international treaties (taking into account their conceptual, vocabulary and terminological content), the author uses the general scientific method of cognition.RESEARCH RESULTS. The current increased interest to the issue of “space debris” active removal has revealed the need to clarify the international legal basis for the emergence and use of this concept for further possible practical and international legal actions aimed at solving problems associated with such removal. It’s noted the lack of uniformity in the use of terms and word combinations on the issues under study, are considered definitions for “space debris” developed without due regard to the applicable norms of international space law, and are given regulatory explanations to the status of documents adopted in this area by various international structures and organizations.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. Assessing the current situation in matters of near-Earth space contamination, it can be noted that the issue of active removal of “space debris” should be resolved in the context of ensuring safe access to space, which is an integral part of the triune problem of space traffic management, the regulation of which is becoming an urgent problem and requires the development of a generally accepted legally binding international treaty.

INTRODUCTION. The modern system of international relations features an incredible complexity of its processes and events. Thus, in different countries there is a transformation of the existing state-legal forms as well as crises of government institutions. New types of states are appearingon the political map of the world while the established forms of international cooperationare changing. Nevertheless, states are still the main participants of international communication.MATHERIALS AND METHODS. Therefore, to perform an in-depth analysis of the modern international system of international relations as a whole and the position of individual states in it with quantitative indicators, one needs to create research tools that allow to make a qualitative assessment. We consider the category of “statehood” to be one of the main categories able to most fully assess the qualitative position of certain states in the world system and analyze various external manifestations of their essential and most significant characteristics. This article is devoted to a theoretical analysis of the category of “statehood” as a concept through which the unchanging essence of the state as a political unity and as a participant of international communication as well as the description of the forms of its external representation in international relations.RESEARCH RESULTS. Statehood appears as a comprehensive characteristic of the state organization of society and the degree of development of its intangible culture, which is externally distributed in various methods and forms of the political and legal structure of this society and the basis for the historical continuity of its development. Statehood is not identical to the concept of the state, as it is a qualitative characteristic of a state-organized society. Statehood is a reflection of the internal organizing essence of the state. The carrier of statehood is the people.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. The main conclusions of the conducted research are as follows. First, the main forms of external realization of statehood in international law are the authority of the state and its national state tradition. The authority of the state is connected with the concept of international legality and is based on the constant and conscious adherence of the state to the general principles and principles of international law. National state tradition characterizes the state as a participant in international legal relations, possessing its own established state culture. Secondly, the modern system of international relations appears as a system of relations of authority of states, behind which there are all their diverse and multifaceted statuses and characteristics.

INTRODUCTION. The current stage of development of integration processes within the European Union is accompanied by a clash between European identity and the national identity of individual European Union (EU) member states, which advocate building a national state and legal system in accordance with their own national ideas. In order to bring national approaches to supranational standards, EU institutions required the invention of ever new enforcement mechanisms, which are clothed in the form of mechanisms for monitoring compliance with the rule of law in individual EU member states. One of the most striking examples of the use of appropriate mechanisms was forcing Poland to comply with the principle of the rule of law in its supranational understanding. The analysis of the Polish experience takes on additional relevance in the context of the fact that pressure from EU institutions contributed to a change in the ruling party in Poland. PiS lost in the 2023 Sejm elections and in December 2023 a pro-European government led by D. Tusk came to power in Poland. The purpose of this article is to, based on an analysis of the practice of applying mechanisms for enforcing the rule of law (as understood by the EU) in relation to Poland, to identify key aspects of the evolution, as well as the current state of the system of enforcing member states to comply with the core values of the EU.MATERIALS AND METHODS. When conducting the study, a wide range of supranational acts and official EU documents related to the application of mechanisms for enforcing compliance with the rule of law in relation to Poland was used. Also, materials from the law enforcement practice of the EU Court of Justice were used as a source for analysis. Additionally, publications in the media, official speeches and statements of Polish and European political figures were involved. General scientific (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, system method) and special scientific methods were used, which include: comparative legal method, historical legal method, method of analysis of judicial practice, formal legal method, etc.RESEARCH RESULTS. The article provides a consistent analysis of the key mechanisms for forcing Poland to comply with the requirements of the rule of law in its supranational interpretation, which explains a lot in the polarization of the country's political forces and the periodically escalating confrontation between Warsaw and Brussels. The effectiveness of the applied mechanisms was assessed.DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS. Based on an analysis of the Polish experience, the conclusion is formulated that currently the EU has formed an effective financial and budgetary mechanism for forcing member states to comply with the requirements of the rule of law. It is substantiated that this mechanism today includes two key elements: general (the mechanism of conditionality of the rule of law of measures to protect the EU budget) and special (the mechanism of conditionality of the rule of law of providing financing from a special Recovery and Resilience Fund, formed to ensure post-pandemic recovery in 2021–2027). The article also concludes that other mechanisms for forcing EU member states to comply with the principle of the rule of law in its supranational understanding are ineffective. Thus, the following are characterized by low effectiveness: Framework procedure for combating systemic threats to the rule of law; Mechanism for redressing a serious and persistent violation by a Member State of EU values; Mechanism for strengthening the rule of law; as well as appealing individual actions of member states to the EU Court of Justice.

INTRODUCTION. The subject of this study is achievements (results) of technology, or more precisely, products of artificial intelligence (intelligent machine; intelligent computer program, etc.) and their impact on the implementation of human rights through the prism of the human mind and in the context of the international legal, including the human rights dimension.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The scientific research is based on the work of both Russian and foreign specialists in the field of law, international law, international human rights law, as well as specialists in the regulation and use of artificial intelligence products. Documents and materials of international organizations, primarily the United Nations (UN), as well as national legal acts of the Russian Federation have been analyzed. In the preparation of the study, general scientific, comparative legal and specifically legal methods were used.RESEARCH RESULTS. Within the framework of the conducted research, the authors delved into the concept of the term “artificial intelligence” itself, and come to the conclusion that despite its widespread use by specialists in various fields, there is no single concept of this term at the moment. The authors analyzed the national legal framework of the Russian Federation directly or indirectly regulating the use of AI products, as well as international legal achievements in the regulation of this area (primarily at the universal (UN) and integration (European Union (EU)) levels), with a special emphasis on the implementation and observance of human rights and freedoms.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. The authors came to the conclusion that the nature of the impact of artificial intelligence on the realization of human rights is dual. Already at the initial stage of defining the legal regime for the development and use of AI products weak mechanisms of control and responsibility in this sphere are laid down. The question arises as to which legal regime is preferable for states whose corporations are leading in the development of AI products. Despite existing international legal regulatory mechanisms, this protection is still insufficient.

xВ статье рассмотрена история развития уголовной ответственности за незаконное предпринимательство в российском законодательстве, уголовно-правовая характеристика состава преступления, предусмотренного ст. 171 УК РФ. Автор анализирует дискуссионные вопросы определения общественной опасности незаконного предпринимательства, выделяет правоприменительные проблемы.По результатам исследования предложены модельные положения уголовной ответственности за незаконную предпринимательскую деятельность, основанные на положении об отсутствии необходимой и достаточной для криминализации общественной опасности деяния, осуществляемого путемосуществления предпринимательской деятельности без регистрации. Также автор аргументирует положения о фактической невозможности привлечения к уголовной ответственности за осуществлениедеятельности в отсутствие аккредитации в национальной системе аккредитации в связи с отсутствием обязательных требований к такой деятельности. Указанное позволяет сделать вывод, что подобный способ выполнения объективной стороны незаконного предпринимательства не отвечает критерием общественной опасности, и рассматриваемая норма в данной части поделит корректировке.

В статье раскрыты проблемы правового регулирования экологической деятельности в периодпроведения СВО на Донбассе. Особое внимание уделено вопросам, связанным с утилизацией и переработкой отходов, возникших вследствие разрушения объектов промышленного и гражданскогостроительства; технологических отходов горнодобывающего и металлургического комплексов, стеклоотходов. Предложены пути усовершенствования нормативно-правового регулирования и ряд организационных мер, позволяющих решить комплекс вопросов, связанных с улучшением экологической обстановки в регионе.

В настоящей статье обсуждаются фронтиры на осуществление и защиту субъективных гражданских цифровых прав в процессе реформы Гражданского кодекса Узбекистана, выявлены конкретныепроблемы и разработаны соответствующие решения. В статье представлены концептуальные научно-практические и учебно-методические проблемы по осуществлению и защите гражданских цифровых прав в Республике Узбекистан и пути их решения.

Статья посвящена раскрытию причин и природы технологического суверенитета России, а также характеристике современного состояния его правового регулирования. Отдельное внимание уделено предложениям по использованию дополнительных правовых механизмов обеспечения технологического суверенитета нашей страны.

Различие между статьями 285 и 286 Уголовного кодекса Российской Федерации, определяющими злоупотребление и превышение должностных полномочий, долгое время было объектом юридических дебатов. Автор исследования подвергает сомнению целесообразность разграничения этихпреступлений. Анализируются аргументы как сторонников, так и противников разграничения этихсоставов преступлений в уголовном законе РФ. С учетом сложившейся правоприменительной практики доказывается необходимость в уточнении признаков соответствующих составов преступлений.

В настоящей статье рассматриваются возможности применения автономии воли при определении права, подлежащего применению к определению правового положения лиц. Автор приходитк выводу, что сегодня в российском коллизионном законодательстве автономия воли лишь в исключительных случаях находит место при определении права, подлежащего применению к определениюправового положения физических и юридических лиц, что в немалой степени связано с негативнымотношением законодателя к сделкам, направленным на ограничение правоспособности и дееспособности. С другой стороны, расширение правоспособности или дееспособности лиц на основе иностранного закона равным образом не всегда находит консенсус у отечественного правоприменителя.

В статье рассмотрены проблемы международного трудового права в условиях глобализации и региональной интеграции. Глобализация рассматривается в качестве одной из актуальных негативныхтенденций, проявляющихся в сближении государств международного сообщества с целью оказанияих взаимного влияния в различных сферах. Экономическая региональная интеграция приводит кформированию межгосударственных рынков труда, в связи с чем ставится вопрос о возможностях и эффективности международного трудового права в условиях глобализации и региональной интеграции. Задачейнастоящего исследования является характеристика проблем глобализации, региональной интеграции.

В статье рассмотрены особенности правового регулирования контрольно-надзорной деятельности в Донецкой Народной Республике как новом субъекте Российской Федерации. Приведены нормативно-правовые документы, регламентирующие порядок проведения контрольно-надзорных мероприятий в переходный период. Определены организационно-правовые мероприятия, необходимыедля формирования региональной системы контроля и надзора в Донецкой Народной Республике.

Статья посвящена проведению сравнительно-правовой характеристики правового регулирования рабочего времени в праве Российской Федерации и зарубежных государств (на примере европейских государств). Рабочее время — один из институтов российского трудового права, определяющий виды и режимы рабочего времени. В рамках настоящей статьи проанализировано правовоерегулирование рабочего времени на примере таких европейских государств как Великобритания,ФРГ, Франция, Дания, Швейцария.

В статье рассматриваются направления профилактики правонарушений в сфере хозяйствования, влияющие на ее экономическую безопасность. Показано, что подготовка специалистов является важной составляющей системы профилактики правонарушений. Важное место занимает взаимодействие субъектов профилактической работы. Расшифровано понятие «сфера хозяйствования».Отмечено, что специальные меры профилактики правонарушений являются подсистемой общесоциальной профилактики. Специальные меры профилактики правонарушений разделены условнона три группы: организационно-технические, административные и уголовно-процессуальные, информационно-воспитательные.

В статье уделяется внимание биографии Ф.Ф. Кокошкина. Предлагается общая характеристикаего взглядов на возникновение и признаки государства, форму государства. Особое внимание обращается на права человека. Рассматривается парламентаризм, разделение властей. Анализируется социологическая школа права.

This study investigates the implications of the German Federal Constitutional Court’s ruling on November 15, 2023, declaring the second supplementary budget of 2021 unconstitutional, specifically the reallocation of unused COVID-19 debt authorisations for green initiatives. This landmark decision clarifies the exceptions to the debt brake and the handling of special funds, significantly affecting the climate and transformation fund, indirectly influencing other special funds aimed at stabilising the energy sector and rebuilding from the 2021 flood disaster. The research method involves a comprehensive review of legal documents, government reports, and financial data to assess the impact on Germany’s ability to fund its climate and energy transition policies, particularly through the climate and transformation fund and the broader implications for economic policy and insolvency rates. The main findings highlight the conflict between fiscal discipline, as mandated by the debt brake, and the government’s intention to finance environmental initiatives with unutilised COVID-19 debts. The ruling underscores the challenges of balancing fiscal restrictions with urgent environmental goals, questioning the flexibility of budgetary and tax policies to support significant investments in sustainability and climate protection. The conclusion calls for reevaluating how green agendas can be funded within stringent fiscal rules, emphasising the need for innovative financing solutions and a commitment to reconciling economic stability with ecological sustainability. This case study presents a critical analysis of the delicate balance between fiscal responsibility and achieving vital environmental objectives, urging rethink on financing green initiatives within the confines of fiscal and constitutional boundaries.

The subject of analysis in the current theoretical and practical research is an act with a high degree of social danger that exists in objective reality and manifests within the tourism sector – sexual exploitation in the field of travel and tourism. This exploitation is characterised by prerequisites for being carried out in a hidden and unnoticed manner. It is a multidimensional activity with objective and subjective features that affect the diverse rights of victims, primarily children. The primary goal of this study is to illustrate the necessity for adequate criminal law protection for every child worldwide from this form of abuse and to present several specific proposals. This article applies comparative legal research and socio-legal research of legal provisions of different legislation regulating sexual exploitation in travel and tourism. MAXQDA software was used for data analysis.

This article explores the historical evolution of Online Dispute Resolution (ODR) against the backdrop of the internet’s inception and development. In the early years, the internet was largely restricted to government organizations, the military, and scientific institutions. Censorship was prevalent, limiting the emergence of disputes within this limited virtual environment. To overcome these constraints, private commercial online services like CompuServe and AOL emerged, offering content-rich platforms but with limited connectivity. This limitation inadvertently reduced the incidence of disputes. However, unrestricted access to online services led to cases of identity deception and abuse, exemplified by the infamous case of a virtual persona, ‘Joan’. The ‘Joan’ incident underscored the challenges of managing online interactions in the absence of regulatory mechanisms. It prompted the emergence of system administrators responsible for balancing content policies and First Amendment rights. The article also delves into the early legal landscape concerning online communication and the challenges of regulating content and expression. This historical analysis offers insights into the origins of ODR, highlighting the need for effective dispute resolution mechanisms in the evolving digital landscape. It sheds light on the internet’s journey from a closed network to a global platform, raising critical questions about identity, freedom of expression, and the role of administrators in online governance.

This study endeavors to examine the phenomenon of whistleblowing within the context of freedom of expression. The paper is organized into three key segments, each addressing distinct aspects. Initially, it delves into the challenges and complexities inherent in conceptualizing whistleblowing. Subsequently, the paper establishes a theoretical foundation for the fundamental rights approach to whistleblowing, laying the groundwork for the final section: an analysis of whistleblowing cases through the lens of the European Court of Human Rights’ case law. The research methodology employed comprises secondary analysis (desk research) and legal case studies. The study aims to achieve a dual purpose: firstly, to offer a comprehensive understanding of the legal analysis and interpretation of whistleblowing; and secondly, to elucidate the evolving legal standards and criteria governing whistleblowing in the context of freedom of expression over recent years.

Certain platform operators serve as both suppliers of goods on the platform and sources of business opportunities. Platforms on which the operator himself is a provider, i.e. his own user, is referred to as hybrid or dual-role platforms. The platform operator can set and enforce the platform rules itself. Unfair treatment can take many forms, from a modification of the product ranking to the removal of products or the supplier from the platform. The ranking of products on the platform must necessarily put one provider’s product ahead of another’s and the platform operator must regulate in some way which providers are allowed on the platform and which are excluded from the platform. Thus, the question is whether these rules and their enforcement must be objectively justified or whether the platform operator can act on its own. This article discusses the concept of ‘self-favoring.’ Whether private law places restrictions on this kind of action or if the platform operator has the right to handle independently will be analyzed below. The analysis aims to furnish details regarding the operator’s essential powers on his platform, which are a manifestation of the notably partial exercise of regulatory power.

Definition of waste in the EU legal regulations is very vague. Therefore, the Court of Justice of the EU and the European Commission (by its guidance) try to help to the national courts with the interpretation of the concept of waste. There are many judgements that offer examples and circumstances that should be considered when defining a substance as waste. However, the fact that the concept of waste depends on the verb ‘discard’ which should be interpreted according to the relevant circumstances in the particular cases causes that the concept of waste remains still very vague. The situation is also complicated by the fact that the concept of waste does not have the same meaning with other relevant international documents. The aim of the paper is to collect the last development of the concept of waste in the judgements of the Court of Justice of the EU. In the paper, there are pointed out how the relevant circumstances of the word ‘discard’ should be considered in the present view of the Court of Justice of the EU. In conclusions, we try to summary the main categories of waste regarding the interpretation of the verb ‘discard’.

The article tries to answer a very important problem faced by legal practitioners of all times, namely the problem of the relationship between equity and law. The perspective of a judge on this aspect is complemented by that of prestigious authors who have reflected on the most appropriate way of applying the law. In the article they are analyzed two major currents of interpretation of legal norms, which are still facing each other in the theory of law, namely textualism and purposivism, the first current claiming that the interpretation of the legal norms must be done exclusively on the basis of the text of the law, and the second that the legislator’s intention or purpose must also be taken into account. It is also emphasized the risk that, through the interpretation of the law, judges will impose their views on state policy. Only equity can protect us from this risk, because it prevents arbitrariness.

The smart shipping and maritime technology encompass blockchain and smart contracts technology, information perception technology, intelligent decision-making technology, intelligent routing technology, marine communication network security technology, route planning technology, autonomous navigation technology, state monitoring and fault diagnosis technology and so on. Nevertheless, these advancements bring practical and legal challenges, as well as a new threat in the digital age: cybercrime. This paper deals with the key challenges and opportunities associated with the integration of digital technologies in shipping and transport such as smart contracts and unmanned ships, and how do cyber issues impact the safety, security, and efficiency of maritime operations. The first part examines the technological background into which smart contracts are integrated and operate, i.e. the terms blockchain and technology distributed ledger technology. The concept, the mechanism and the types of smart contracts in the maritime industry are further analysed. Also, the aspects of new technologies such as Autonomous Vessels and the challenges they raise are examined. The second part focuses on the legal potential of smart contracts examining their issues and the cyber challenges in the maritime industry. The critical remarks and conclusions drawn are listed at the end of the paper.

This study thoroughly investigates the development of an oil and natural gas mining treaty in the high seas of the North Natuna region, focusing on overlapping Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) claims involving Indonesia, Vietnam, and China. Analyzing the geopolitical and economic implications, the research utilizes a comprehensive methodology, including policy document scrutiny and an extensive literature review. The findings underscore the significant potential of North Natuna’s natural resources, accentuating the determination of the three nations to assert their territorial claims. Notably, tension arises from China’s Nine Dash Line claim, challenging the UNCLOS 1982 arbitral tribunal decision. The study recommends a tripartite resolution, emphasizing a robust Code of Conduct agreement. Despite diplomatic efforts, this research stresses the need for strengthening the Code of Conduct and adopting a tripartite reconciliation approach to ensure the security and sovereignty of the North Natuna region. Enforcing rights through the International Arbitration Tribunal is crucial for lasting peace, stability, and the sustainable management of oil and natural gas activities.

اشارهنظر مشورتی دیوان بین‌المللی دادگستری با موضوع پیامدهای حقوقی ناشی از سیاست‌ها و رویه‌های اسرائیل در سرزمین اشغالی فلسطین شامل بیت‌المقدس شرقی در 29 تیر 1403 (19 ژوئیة 2024) صادر شد. این نظر در پاسخ به پرسش‌های مجمع عمومی سازمان ملل از دیوان است که در 9 دی 1401(30 دسامبر 2022) در قالب قطعنامة 77/247 به تصویب رسید. در واقع، این دومین نظر مشورتی است که به‌طور اختصاصی به اقدامات اسرائیل در سرزمین‌های اشغالی فلسطین می‌پردازد. نخستین مورد، حدود 20 سال پیش در 19 تیر 1383 (9 ژوئیة 2004) با عنوان پیامدهای حقوقی ساخت یک دیوار در سرزمین‌های اشغالی فلسطین از سوی دیوان و متعاقب پرسش مجمع عمومی در این مورد صادر شد. با اینکه نظر مشورتی 2004 تنها به بخشی از اقدامات اسرائیل یعنی ساخت دیوار حائل در سرزمین‌های اشغالی می‌پرداخت، اما به یکی از مهم‌ترین تصمیم‌های تاریخ رسیدگی‌های دیوان بدل شد. نظر مشورتی 2024 به دلیل گسترة پرسش‌های مطرح‌شده از سوی مجمع عمومی، به‌ناگزیر اهمیت بیشتری را به دلیل فرصت فراخ دیوان برای پرداختن به تقریباً تمامی ابعاد حقوقی بین‌المللی اشغال فلسطین از سوی اسرائیل خواهد داشت. به همین دلیل نیز مجمع عمومی در راستای اجرایی‌کردن نظر مشورتی 2024 دیوان در 29 شهریور 1403 (19 سپتامبر 2024) ذیل قطعنامة A/RES/ES-10/24 اعلام نمود اسرائیل 12 ماه از زمان تصویب قطعنامه فرصت دارد تا به حضور غیرقانونی خود در سرزمین‌های اشغال‌شدة فلسطین پایان دهد. به همین جهات، مطابق مصوبة هیئت تحریریة مجلة حقوقی بین‌المللی، تصمیم بر آن شد تا ترجمة نظر مشورتی مزبور در این شماره منتشر شود.برگردان متن، به قلم چهار تن از همکاران مرکز امور حقوقی بین‌المللی، همگی از دانش‌آموختگان مقطع دکتری حقوق بین‌الملل صورت گرفته است.ارجاعات دیوان در نظر مشورتی به‌صورت درون‌متنی است که در اینجا بر اساس شیوه‌نامة مجله، به‌صورت پاورقی درج شده است. همچنین در ترجمه سعی شده تا حد امکان وفاداری به متن برای بیان عبارات دیوان حفظ شود و از این رو درج تعابیر، اسامی و عبارات به‌کار‌رفته در متن ترجمه، از‌جمله واژة رژیم اسرائیل، لزوماً بیانگر یا مؤید دیدگاه مجله یا مرکز امور حقوقی بین‌المللی نیست.

امروزه مسائل زیست‌محیطی، یکی از مهم‌ترین چالش‌های بین‌المللی به شمار می‌آید و یکی از اولویت‌های سران دولتها نیز شده است. شکی نیست در آینده‌ای نه‌چندان دور، ریشه اصلی اختلاف دولت‌ها همانا مسائل زیست‌محیطی و منابع طبیعی خواهد بود. در این میان کوه‌ها به واسطه نقش بی‌بدیلی که در اکوسیستم ایفا می‌نمایند از اهمیت و جایگاه ویژه‌ای برخوردارند؛ با این حال، کمتر در کانون توجه‌ها قرار گرفته‌اند و به همین علت، ساختار شکننده آنها بیش از پیش در معرض آسیب و تخریب قرار میگیرد. با استفاده از ظرفیت‌های حقوق بین‌الملل میتوان نسبت به جلوگیری از تخریب بیشتر و احیای خسارات واردشده اقدام نمود چه اینکه هم‌اکنون نیز در این حوزه اقدامات حقوقی پاره‌ای از کشورهای اروپایی اثرات مثبتی نیز داشته است.

Following the events of September 11, 2001, the international community has confronted the emergence of a novel paradigm known as the "Global War on Terrorism." This framework has disrupted the equilibrium between human rights and national security, resulting in significant ramifications: it has not only compromised the fundamental rights of citizens but also adversely affected the basic rights of individuals suspected or accused of terrorist offenses. Governments engaged in counter-terrorism efforts bear the responsibility of maintaining a delicate balance between effective law enforcement and the safeguarding of civil liberties. While the existence of terrorism as a formidable threat is widely acknowledged, the protection of human rights - particularly the rights of the accused in anti-terrorism operations - remains paramount. There exists a consensus that, in the pursuit of counter-terrorism, all lawful means should be employed to prevent such crimes, with efforts to neutralize threats supporting the tenets of human rights. However, the central issue pertains to the precision and legality of these measures. This study aims to examine the challenges inherent in reconciling the respect for and protection of human rights with the imperative to combat terrorism, with a specific focus on the rights of the accused. The findings indicate that responses to terrorism must uphold the rule of law; neglecting human rights in the fight against terrorism risks creating an environment conducive to the proliferation of terrorism.

ماهیت داوری‌ بین‌المللی و حاکمیت طرفین دعوا در انتخاب داور، ایجاب می‌کند داوران از میان افراد ذی‌صلاحی با ملیت، جنسیت و سنین گوناگون منصوب شوند. با این وجود بررسی‌ها نشان می‌دهد که داوری بین‌المللی عمدتا در انحصار مردانی سفیدپوست از کشورهای توسعه-یافته بوده و سایرین سهم چندانی در این عرصه ندارند. انتصاب مکرر برخی از داوران سرشناس و پذیرش نقش دوگانه داور و وکیل از مهمترین سازوکارهایی است که با دشوار ساختن ورود داوران جدید، موقعیت افراد موجود را تثبیت نموده و شبکه‌ی بسته‌ای از داوران بین المللی را شکل می‌دهد. مقاله‌ی حاضر با تحلیل تاثیر انتصاب مکرر داوران و پذیرش نقش دوگانه‌ی داور و وکیل بر تنوع جامعه داوری و متعاقبا بر کیفیت رسیدگی و مشروعیت داوری، پیشنهاد می‌کند که متعاقب افشای انتصاب‌ها و موضع‌گیری سابق داوران، در تعداد داوری و وکالتی که یک فرد می‌تواند بپذیرد، محدودیت ایجاد شود.

قانون‌گذاری سنگ‌بنای نظام‌های حقوقی است و تمامی این نظام‌ها از چنین کارکردی به‌اقتضای ساختار و مختصات خود برخوردارند. در این زمینه، حقوق بین‌الملل برخلاف نظام‌های حقوقی داخلی، به دلایلی چون تأثیر عوامل غیرحقوقی چندان منظم عمل نمی‌کند و می‌توان هرگونه اقدام اعضای جامعه‌ بین‌المللی در جهت ایجاد حقوق را خلق قواعد حقوقی بین‌المللی یا قانون‌سازی بین‌المللی دانست. بنابراین، همه کنش‌گران بین‌المللی، به‌کمک ابزارها و منابع سخت و نرم حقوق بین‌الملل، در این فرایند مشارکت می‌نمایند. در این میان، منابع سنتی حقوق بین‌الملل، عرف و معاهده، از جایگاهی ویژه برخوردارند. عمر دیرپای این دو منبع به زمان تشکیل جامعه‌ جهانی بازمی‌گردد و همچنان دولت‌ها برای ایجاد قواعد لازم‌الاجرا از آنها بهره می‌برند. پرسش اصلی این است که چگونه این منابع سنتی از گذشته تاکنون در فرایند قانون‌سازی بین‌المللی مشارکت داشته‌اند؟ مطابق فرضیه، با ابتنای بر روش توصیفی-تحلیلی، این منابع به‌شکلی خودخواسته و غیرتحمیلی، اما متفاوت، نیازهای واضعان خود را مرتفع می‌سازند و همین، رمز بقای آنها در درازای تاریخ است. نوشتار حاضر، هم‌سو با فرضیه پژوهش، درمی‌یابد درحالی‌که قانون‌سازی عرفی، به‌عنوان یک حرکت جمعی، عمدتاً خودجوش، ضمنی، تدریجی و غیرعامدانه است، خلق معاهداتی قواعد حقوقی، به‌عنوان نماد فردگرایی یا خاص‌نگری در جامعه بین‌المللی، اغلب دفعی، صریح، یکباره و عامدانه رقم می‌خورد.