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This study looks into one context of Formulaic Speech (FS) usage: The partial L2 immersion class. It tries to define and classify FS according to Raupach's contextual list (1984) and lexical criteria as well as differentiating it from creative speech. FS is presented mostly as a pragmatic concept challenging the usual conceptions of language acquisition as an analytical process. Also challenged is the idea that language production is based on analysis of the input followed by production out of parsed output. In a Second Language Acquisition perspective, FS is shown as being a temporary stage of acquisition which, among other aspects, enables the speaker to reach idiomaticity in his or her L2 and thereby efficient communication with native speakers. Keywords: Formulaic speech, Second language acquisition, Second language production, Partial immersion, Communicative competence.

To understand the vibrant and increasing interest in identity and second language acquisition (SLA), it is important to understand changing conceptions of the individual, language, and learning in the field. Each of these areas is associated with broader trends in the social sciences, which represent a shift in the field from a predominantly psycholinguistic approach to SLA to include a greater focus on sociological and anthropological dimensions of language learning, particularly with reference to sociocultural, poststructural, and critical theory (Norton & Toohey, 2001; Block, 2007b; Morgan, 2007). SLA researchers who are interested in identity are interested not only in linguistic input and output in SLA, but in the relationship between the language learner and the larger social world. They question the view that learners can be defined in binary terms as motivated or unmotivated, introverted or extroverted, without considering that such affective factors are frequently socially constructed, changing across time and space, and possibly coexisting in contradictory ways within a single individual. These researchers have examined the diverse social, historical, and cultural contexts in which language learning takes place, and how learners negotiate and sometimes resist the diverse positions those contexts offer them. Keywords: esl/efl; educational linguistics; second language acquisition; sociolinguistics; identity; multilingualism

The current interest in the role of culture in language teaching is due to a number of factors, political, educational, ideological. Both in Europe and in the U.S., albeit for different reasons, there is a great deal of political pressure now put on foreign language educators to help solve the social and economic problems of the times. Educators fear that the mere acquisition of linguistic systems is no guarantee of international peace and understanding. After years of communicative euphoria, some language teachers are becoming dissatisfied with purely functional uses of language. Some are pleading to supplement the traditional acquisition of "communication skills" with some intellectually legitimate, humanistically oriented, cultural "content". Others, who teach their language to non-native speaker immigrants, are under pressure to absorb (read: acculturate) into their society growing numbers of newcomers. And there is of course the recrudescence of nationalism around the world that draws political capital from increased links between national languages and national cultures. The reasons for the growing "culturalisation" of language teaching are many, the motives often contradictory.

The question whether some second language (L2) features (forms, items, structures, patterns, rules) and, if so, which types of features, are more affected by instruction or are more effectively instructed than others has received increasing attention in applied linguistics and SLA research since the mid-1990s (VanPatten, 1994; Spada, 1997). For SLA researchers, knowing how the nature of the input stimulus interacts with the human cognitive processing and learning mechanisms is important for constructing a comprehensive theory of language acquisition. For theoretical, typological and psycho-linguists, knowing which types of features of language are hard to learn and teach can inform theories of language and processing complexity (Szmrecsanyi & Kortmann, 2012). For L2 teachers and curriculum and textbook developers, knowing which type of L2 features to select in the typically limited teaching time is important for optimizing L2 teaching and learning effectiveness (Doughty & Williams, 1998).

As a relatively young field of research and development that began with work on crypt-analysis and machine translation around 50 years ago, natural language processing (NLP) is concerned with the automated processing of human language. Keywords: CALL; computational linguistics; corpora; ICALL; natural language processing

To appear in Chapelle, C., & Sauro, S. (Eds.). 2016. The handbook of technology in second language teaching and learning. John Wiley & Sons. RESEARCH METHODS FOR INVESTIGATING TECHNOLOGY FOR LANGUAGE AND CULTURE LEARNING Dorothy M. Chun Abstract Based on selected research studies that are among the most highly-cited or considered seminal or influential, this chapter provides an overview of the various qualitative, quantitative, and mixed- methods approaches that have been used to date in CALL research. CALL is used to refer to “Computer-Assisted Languaculture Learning,” which encompasses not just second language learning but also learning about the cultures associated with these languages. Areas of investigation have included learning of grammar, vocabulary, reading/writing, listening/speaking, pragmatics and intercultural competence, as well as overall communicative and intercultural competence. Technologies investigated in these areas range from tutorial lessons to collaborative Internet-based projects. Potential future methodologies and directions for future research are discussed for Computer-Assisted Languaculture Learning. Keywords research methods, quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, language learning, culture learning, languaculture

This paper tackled the subject of approaches related to correcting the imbalance in the balance of payments by presenting the theoretical information on each of the elasticities approach, the absorption approach and the monetary approach as they are the most important approaches known to the economic system with the development of its theories over time, which relate to the pursuit of an external balance represented by a balance. Balance of Payments. The research concluded that the different ideas of economic thinkers about money produced three approaches that can be used in order to reach the balance of payments balance, which mostly use the policy of devaluation to achieve this balance, and this is taking into account the nature of the components of the balance of state payments and the size and direction of international economic relations.

Corpus linguistics is an area of applied linguistics that uses computer technology to analyze large collections of spoken and written texts, or corpora, which have been carefully designed to represent specific domains of language use, such as informal conversation or academic writing. Keywords: esl/efl; language teaching; corpus; language learning technology

This textbook approaches second language acquisition from the perspective of generative linguistics. Roumyana Slabakova reviews and discusses paradigms and findings from the last thirty years of research in the field, focussing in particular on how the second or additional language is represented in the mind and how it is used in communication. The adoption and analysis of a specific model of acquisition, the Bottleneck Hypothesis, provides a unifying perspective. The book assumes some non-technical knowledge of linguistics, but important concepts are clearly introduced and defined throughout, making it a valuable resource not only for undergraduate and graduate students of linguistics, but also for researchers in cognitive science and language teachers.

This paper examines language policy options as they relate to post-colonial primary education in Creole-speaking multi-ethnic Caribbean states. It first discusses the different roles of English and vernacular languages, the former as the language of instruction in formal education and the latter as interactional languages within local communities. It concludes with theoretically based practical notes on language teaching appropriate to each policy option. This paper uses as an illustrative example the language policies in bi-ethnic Guyana and addresses the critical issue whether the Ministry of Education, through social aspects of its policies, should take responsibility for community languages or ignore community languages in order to focus on early proficiency in the English language. The controversial decision is to what extent primary education should emphasise high English inputs for early academic attainment or prioritise community language inputs for promotion of social equity. This paper considers three language policy options, one policy option matching each of these extremes and one addressing the middle ground. Each policy option is contingent on three decision criteria: density of entry languages, available resources and the extent to which communities value their languages. These policy options are: (i) English language immersion, (ii) Transitional language policy and (iii) Bilingual policy. The three policies options are illustrated with comparative examples from several pluri-ethnic states. KEY WORDS: language policy; ESL; language curriculum; language immersion; plurilingualism; post-colonial education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15181/ rh.v0i16.1009

Purpose. The article is devoted to the 65th anniversary of the famous practitioner and scientist — Professor Alexander Fedorov. It provides brief information about the hero of the day, data on the main directions of his scientific research and published works, and concludes that he formed an intersectoral scientific school of combating crime with an emphasis on the comprehensive approach to the study of law and law enforcement inherent in this researcher. The purpose of the article is to promote the most significant works of famous Russian scientists. Methodology: dialectics, hermeneutics, synergetics. Conclusions. The article shows that it is practice that determines the need for conducting appropriate legal research, since legal science cannot be divorced from the realities of life, but is derived from them, providing the solution of practical problems. In turn, legal practice, first, is largely based on the results of previous scientific activity, and secondly, ultimately aimed at solving practical problems. Scientific and practical significance. The article proves that, on the one hand, legal practice is a source of development of legal science, and on the other hand, legal science largely determines what legal practice should be. At the same time, both science and practice in their combination in this article successfully develop a comprehensive theory of law.

Mick Randall reviews work from psychology and linguistics on language processing with the aim of drawing conclusions for second language learning. Based on his experiences as a language teacher with students at elementary and intermediate level and in less resourced contexts, he tries to find evidence for the effectiveness of more traditional learning and teaching strategies next to the communicative approach (o.c. vii-viii).

What is the relationship between learners' identities and their language-learning experiences? How are identities constructed in language classrooms and what does this imply for students and teachers? Over the last decade, applied linguists have paid increasing attention to questions such as these, as have scholars in such related fields as second language acquisition (SLA), language education, and sociolinguistics. Studies examining the links between learner identities and language-learning contexts have revealed that the ways learners define themselves, are defined by others, and are positioned in social interaction have an observable impact on their learning experiences. This body of scholarship has contributed to advancing new theoretical insights on identity construction in language-learning situations. Keywords: language teaching; language in the classroom; identity

There is a contest between the view that the primary function of language is that of an instrument of communication and the view that it is that of a vehicle of thought. But such a dilemma is misconceived. The true opposition is between language as representation and language as activity. The representation picture of language is misleading in so far as it assumes that the representative power can be isolated from other features of language and that it consists in the speaker's being in the correct interior states. That would render understanding completely mysterious, and therefore, we should demand an outward manifestation of understanding expressed in linguistic exchange and other actions.

The far-reaching influence that the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) has had on second language acquisition (SLA) research is reflected in studies which emphasize the important role played by semiotic mediation in social interaction within social, cultural, physical, and historical contexts. Keywords: language and social interaction; second language acquisition; sociocultural language studies

Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) is the use of smartphones and other mobile technologies in language learning, especially in situations where portability and situated learning offer specific advantages. A key attraction of mobile learning is the ubiquity of mobile phones. Typical applications can support learners in reading, listening, speaking and writing in the target language, either individually or in collaboration with one another. Increasingly, MALL applications relate language learning to a person’s physical context when mobile, primarily to provide access to location-specific language material or to enable learners to capture aspects of language use in situ and share it with others. Mobile learning can be formal or informal, and mobile devices may form a bridge connecting in-class and out-of-class learning. When learning takes place outside the classroom, it is often beyond the reach and control of the teacher. This can be perceived as a threat, but it is also an opportunity to revitalize and rethink current approaches to teaching and learning. Mobile learning appeals to a wide range of people for a variety of reasons. It may exclude some learners but it is often a mechanism for inclusion. It is likely that the next generation of mobile learning will be more ubiquitous, which means that there will be smart systems everywhere for digital learning. Mobile learning is proving its potential to address authentic learner needs at the point at which they arise, and to deliver more flexible models of language learning.

In Latvia there are no substantial studies on bilingual preschool children’s Latvian language as the second language. The article provides an overview of the 20th–21st century linguistic theories in the context of child second language acquisition as well as raises awareness about their infl uence on and use in the learning of preschoolers whose second language is Latvian, carrying out content analysis of the Minority Preschool Education Program(with instruction in Russian), the Latvian Language Program of X preschool education establishment, teaching resources (teaching aid kits, didactic handouts) as well as the Latvian language as the second language study content.The conclusion is drawn that the theory of communicative competence and the systemic functional grammar theory prevail as well as the basic principles of the behavioral theory can be discerned. In the teaching resources and learning process it is advisable to more often incorporate the same language material repetition in different situations and new combinations. Consideration must be given to more positive and negative transfer (interference) emphasis. To prevent children’s errors it is advisable to provide and incorporate special exercises in the teaching resources as well as methodological recommendations for the Latvian language teachers.

The place of learners' first language (L1) in the second and foreign-language (SL/FL) classroom has evolved along with the methods of language teaching. Keywords: language teaching; language in the classroom; translation

It seems like a simple enough question: Is computer-assisted language learning effective for language learning? Indeed, researchers address this question in a variety of ways, but most language teachers and researchers would point out that the question is considerably more complex than it first appears. Keywords: CALL; computer mediated communication; language teaching; research methods in applied linguistics; evaluation; language learning technology

The basic principle of genre-based language teaching is that awareness of the forms, purposes, and social contexts of texts will aid in writing development. Keywords: language teaching; language for specific purposes; writing

Is it the same to acquire a second language or a third language? Does the second language play a role in third language acquisition? Are we more expert learners if we have already learned a second language? These are fascinating questions taking into account that multilingualism is spread all over the world. This entry discusses the issues examined in third language acquisition research in order to answer these questions. The entry has three sections. In the first section the scope and focus of this research area are defined. The second section gives an idea of the different situations in which a third language or an additional language is learned. In the third section some of the main findings are discussed. Keywords: language acquisition; multilingualism; third language

English, along with a small number of other languages in the modern period, has expanded away from local through national to international domains, changing significantly along the way. But the changes are not simply those that take place in the normal course of the history of a language; other changes come about as a language takes on new cultural, economic and political responsibilities. Critical moments occur when a language comes to be written as well as spoken, and then when it comes to function as a standard language for some sort of nation-state. In that socio-historical perspective English is now acquiring a new identity as the global language of the late capitalist world. Some of the consequences of this development are beginning to show; but we have yet to find out what the long-term effects are that arise when a language finds itself globalized.

CLIL, or ‘Content and Language Integrated Learning’, is a term used to describe the practice of teaching content through a foreign language. It represents an educational approach, which can embody a range of different methodologies and has, in recent years, been receiving increased attention in Europe partially as a result of the fact that efforts put into language teaching are not always reflected in the results achieved. This paper begins with a brief overview of developments in the field of foreign language acquisition and how these might relate to the notion of CLIL. It then goes on to describe the design, delivery and evaluation of a module in German language for intermediate, undergraduate students, which incorporates an element of CLIL.

Over the past thirty years, proposals for task-based language teaching (TBLT) have drawn on a variety of claims about, and research into, the cognitive processes thought to promote successful second language acquisition (SLA). Keywords: cognitive development; esl/efl; psycholinguistics; second language acquisition; semantics; interactionist language studies

The word motivation derives from the Latin verb movere meaning “to move.” What moves a person to make certain choices, to engage in action, to persist in action—such questions lie at the heart of motivation theory and research.

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is increasingly used not only in second/foreign language teaching but also in language teacher education. This study investigated distance students' participation in an online discussion group established for an applied linguistic course entitled Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL). Patterns of student-student interaction and students' attitudes toward the online discussion were identified through quantitative and qualitative analyses of the students' postings to the discussion group, transcripts of online discussions, and students' responses to a web-based questionnaire. The results of the study indicate that students contributed primarily in the forms of fully and partially task-focused messages while the messages mainly consisted of task-based answers and interactive contributions. Almost half of the student-student interactions involved giving on- and off-task opinions and/or ideas on particular matters. Students showed positive attitudes toward online discussions as a way of learning CALL as well as toward CMC as a means of facilitating collaborative learning. The findings suggest that online discussions are useful for CALL teacher training as they provide language teachers with practical experience of CMC and communication channels for sharing ideas, comments, questions, and resources with their fellow teachers.

The subject of CALL has only recently been introduced to language teachers inWest Germany. While in other European countries many institutions are involved inprojects dealing with the use of computers in language learning. The Audio-VisualMedia Centre (AVMZ), Bergische Universitat-GH Wuppertal, 5600 Wuppertal 1, isone of the few places in this country investigating various approaches to CALL.This article describes the general concept of the project and the kind of programsbeing developed and used. Furthermore, it is intended to solicit comments fromscholars and institutions in the USA and thus established contacts and initiate anexchange of ideas.

In the summer of 1981, the author was engaged in pedagogicalresearch in language program development for the governments of Senegaland The Gambia. During that period, he further participated in an eight countrylanguage teaching survey throughout West, Central, and EastAfrica, under the sponsorship of the United States International CommunicationsAgency. Included in that survey was an analysis of the useof radio broadcasts as a means to teach foreign languages. This articlewill describe the language-by-radio programs in four countries, i.e.,Senegal, Burundi, Rwanda, and Kenya. Of special interest is the use ofradio to teach English.

ABSIRACT Recent interest may indicate increasing use of radio in foreign language learning despite some of the very realistic obstacles that face the beginner. Shortwave radio can be used imaginatively in a variety of ways, including: (1) increasing the reality, currency, and accuracy of listening comprehension skills; (2) actual communication with speakers of the target language; and (3) stimulating real interstudent communication in the target language. Scme of the problems associated with the use of the shortwave radio in the foreign language classroom include: (1) the need for enough money to invest in quality equipment; (2) the need for classroom and non-classroom time; (3) unexpected problems sucb as differentiates between the skilled and the non-skilled listener, but this problem can be a valuable element in developing listening comprehension skills. An addendum describes the steps in obtaining an amateur license. One must: (1) pay an application fee; (2) pass a Morse Code test; and (3) pass a written test on radio theory and regulations. (AM