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This article used a qualitative interviewing approach to explore psychosocial and organizational dimensions of leadership of two elementary school leaders (principals) in Southern California. At each school, interviews with the school's principal as well as two key informants were conducted, and we analyzed the findings based on principals' mental models, self-efficacy, and immunities to change. Using Kellar and Slayton's (2016) leadership framework, we considered how psychosocial and organizational leadership contexts fostered conditions to promote organizational change. The findings for this study highlight some of the conditions principals believed were important for organizational improvement as well as challenges faced. Findings indicate that psychological and organizational dimensions reveal complexities of educational leadership by providing a fine-grained portrait of leadership and organizational learning. A study implication is that leaders must not only have time for reflection but also be open to identifying their immunities that may deter efforts at growth and change. Research directions are proposed, including further exploration of how leaders' efforts are shaped by their contexts as well as particular challenges experienced in the role.

Using a case study approach, the authors examined university administrator and instructor perspectives about a writing program's organizational culture. In so doing, members of the writing program were invited to participate in interviews over a three-year period. This qualitative case study suggests that examples of culture through a three-lens perspective (integration, differentiation, and fragmentation) provided a more nuanced reading of the program's identity than a single lens could. The authors suggest that this multi-frame view of organizational culture for understanding policy and practice has implications for academic program leadership.

The purpose of this paper is to explore how accreditation processes aided a school principal in making reform happen. Using routinized action theory (Feldman, 2000), we examined how the routines in school accreditation were used to transform what had been a demoralized, low performing middle school. This theoretical lens is important as it demonstrates that routinized actions can offer more than stabilizing elements in a school organization but also help administrators seeking to make change. We begin by describing the setting of Ironwood Middle School, presenting the research inquiry methods, and examining how accreditation processes enabled the school to move forward in the face of uncertainty and instability.

Structural equation modeling was used to examine a conceptual model specifying hypothesized linkages among teachers' perceptions of school organizational factors, including classroom context and role stress, and commitment, satisfaction, and intentions to leave. Respondents to survey questions designed to capture the above constructs included 177 teachers in seven high schools in a southern coastal region of California. Structural equation modeling results indicated that all three study predictors (class size, student behavior, and role stress) affected intentions to leave, and satisfaction and commitment mediated the relationship between the school organizational factors and intentions to leave., Author(s): Sharon Conley [sup.1] , Sukkyung You [sup.2] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.133342.4, 0000 0004 1936 9676, Department of Education, University of California-Santa Barbara, , Santa Barbara, CA, USA (2) grid.440932.8, [...]

The subject of special education teachers' intentions to leave has been a longstanding concern of researchers and practitioners. This paper reports on a study that examined the workplace predictors of teachers' intentions to leave for a nationally representative USA sample of 2,060 secondary school special education teachers (with students aged approximately 13-18). Structural equation modeling was used to assess the plausibility of a conceptual model, specifying linkages among special education teachers' perceptions of workplace factors, job satisfaction and commitment, and teachers' intentions to leave. Using the 2007-2008 Schools and Staffing Survey data set, two models were tested to assess job satisfaction and commitment as mediators. Administrative support and teacher team efficacy had strong, significant direct and indirect effects on special education teachers' intentions to leave. Teacher job design/autonomy, poor socio-economic/human conditions, and student disengagement also exerted significant indirect effects through satisfaction and commitment. However, administrative support and team efficacy were the most important for these teachers in their effects. Among several demographic variables, teacher age was the most powerful demographic factor, with more experienced teachers having lower intentions to leave. The authors suggest that several conditions and attitudes embedded in the teachers' responses are influenced by administrators. [This work was conducted with permission from the Institute of Education Sciences for use of the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) data set.]

The subject of teachers' intentions to leave has recently captured the attention of researchers and practitioners. This paper reports on a study that examined the workplace predictors of teachers' intentions to leave for teachers in different career stages. Structural equation modeling was used to assess the plausibility of a conceptual model specifying hypothesized linkages among secondary school teachers' perceptions of workplace predictors, satisfaction and commitment, and teachers' intent to leave. Using the USA Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) data set, two mediational models were tested, one reflecting partial mediation and the second representing full mediation. Results indicated that the workplace variables had significant meaningful indirect effects on teachers' intent to leave through three mediators: job satisfaction, work commitment, and career commitment. Furthermore, the effect of administrative support on work and career commitment was uniform and significant for teachers in the three career groups. Some differences across the three teacher career groups were discussed.

This study investigated a sample of California elementary, intermediate, and high school employed teachers (N = 247) to assess the effects of retirement perceptions on career commitment among teachers who are in different age groupings. Using path analysis, the influence of five retirement perceptions variables was examined: concerns about retirement benefits, understanding of the retirement system, perceived need for system change, control over the retirement plan, and satisfaction with current salary. The results indicated that the pattern of results differed for younger and older teachers. For the younger (age 21-45) group, concerns about retirement benefits (such as losing or reducing benefits through geographic mobility) and control over the retirement plan had significant, large, and direct effects on career commitment. For the older (age 46+) group, retirement variables had a significant effect on career commitment via the mediator of satisfaction with the retirement system. Given these findings, for younger teachers, strategies might focus on providing greater control over the retirement plan, such as in offering choice in how their retirement monies are invested. Older teachers need to feel safe about retirement in the sense of being satisfied with the system and its benefits to commit to their jobs.

In this qualitative study, we explored how accreditation processes as routinized action can retain stability while promoting school reform efforts. We identified three secondary schools (two high schools, one middle) that had each employed accreditation processes as required in their respective school districts. We conducted interviews with key informants at each school, reviewed documents prepared for accreditation, and analyzed the findings based on routinized action theory. Using Feldman's (2000) typology of change (repair, expand, strive to make change), we posited how school renewal takes place in an ongoing and systematic manner. The findings suggest that the routines provided in accreditation processes can offer more than just stabilizing elements in a school organization, which had been the traditional view of organizational theorists. We offer implications for researchers and school leaders to consider in applying routines while seeking reform.

Teaching organizational theory in a way that bridges to leadership practice is vital to preparing deft educational leaders who understand the organizational behavior of schools and districts. Organizational theory guides understanding of the complexities of schools and districts and can be a basis for collaborative and effective decision making. This article suggests specific theory that could be taught, strategies for teaching it that are illuminated by examples of student work, and benefits that are likely to accrue.

A previous study examined role stress in relation to work outcomes; in this study, we added job structuring antecedents to a model of role stress and examined the moderating effects of locus of control. Structural equation modeling was used to assess the plausibility of our conceptual model, which specified hypothesized linkages among teachers' perceptions of (a) mechanistic/organic job structuring, (b) role ambiguity, role conflict, and role overload, and (c) commitment, satisfaction, and intentions to leave the school. Respondents to survey questions designed to capture the above constructs included 177 teachers in seven moderately sized comprehensive high schools in Southern California. Results indicated that predicted patterns of relationships were partially moderated by locus of control. The study suggests ways to reduce role stress and enhance the work outcomes of teachers through identifying an appropriate job structure.

This article reports on a study that investigated the relationship between three dimensions of campus racial climate and faculty satisfaction with a large, nationally representative faculty sample (N = 29,169), using a multilevel structural equation model. Results indicate that campus racial climate has a large and highly significant effect upon faculty satisfaction at the individual level.

Purpose: Despite the critical role of support personnel in education, the literature about their supervision has been less than informative. In an effort to provide additional guidance to school leaders seeking to improve the supervision of such personnel, the purpose of this paper is to examine and compare three distinct groups of support personnel: school custodians/janitors, school secretaries, and paraprofessionals in special education. Design/methodology/approach: The paper begins with two analyses. One is that of the general importance of the role of support personnel in public schools in the USA. The other consists of a brief argument as to why the literature about the supervision of support personnel has not been overly informative. The paper proceeds with descriptions of three distinct support personnel groups. Findings: The examination of three support personnel groups highlights the visibility of the school custodian/janitor, the multi-dimensional responsibilities of the school secretary, and the background of the paraprofessional in special education. Research limitations/implications: A comparison of three distinct groups of support personnel has implications for their training, compensation and scheduling, and work design and supervision. Originality/value: The paper content offers an information-rich and multi-faceted view of support personnel in schools, with implications for their overall supervision and the importance of their contribution to the organization. (Contains 4 notes.)

Using an organizational theory to study how people can actually change routines, this study examined alterations made to two aspects of a high school's attendance procedures over 5 years. The authors drew primarily from interviews and school documents to describe and analyze changes made by administrators, faculty, and staff. Organizing questions derived from Feldman's typology of change responses considered how individuals can elect to repair routines when problems occur, expand on new possibilities, and strive toward desired ideals despite routinized actions. The findings describe striving toward a faster, more efficient attendance system and shifting between teacher- and administrator-controlled tardy monitoring. Implications are drawn for school administrators seeking to understand and change school organizations. (Contains 2 tables.)

While providing stability and uniformity, organizational routines can foster continuous change. Using Feldman's (2000) performative model of routinized action theory, coupled with leadership succession research, we examined how three successive administrations in a California high school revised a student attendance (tardy-monitoring) routine over 7 years. Although the changes made by the different leaders did not translate into large shifts in action and behaviors, each administration altered the way that tardies were monitored, thus demonstrating routines' continuous and dynamic nature. Administrators also shifted resources to accommodate changes. Given our findings, we draw implications to help new leaders better understand change in daily school routines. (Contains 3 notes and 1 table.)

Fear can be conceptualized differently as experienced by those inside and outside the school organization. Internally, participants respond to fear in a politics of maintenance aimed toward protection against anticipated job loss(es). This article examines internal organizational participants' fear, with particular attention to teachers' fear of being evaluated. It is argued that the cellular organization of teaching contributes to fear, as do certain existing conflicts in evaluation. For example, teachers fearing a summative evaluation may be less than forthcoming about their performance shortcomings and/or goals. An analysis of fear in teacher evaluation should take into account (a) teacher controllability of teaching and its evaluation and (b) principals' preference for evaluation rigidity. In environments compromised by fear, for example, administrators might restrict information in teacher evaluation. Reform directions such as union participation and altering the adversarial tone of evaluation may improve evaluation by more fully developing the skills desired in teaching. (Contains 1 table and 2 notes.)

Schools employ educational technology to comply with pressures for greater accountability and efficiency in conducting operations. Specifically, schools use "management information systems" designed to automate data collection of student attendance, grades, test scores, and so on. These management information systems (MIS) employed widespread use of technology to enable effective and efficient school operations in order to promote school accountability. In this case study, the authors examines a California high school's implementation of an MIS and explores the perspectives of teachers, staff, and administrators. The purpose of the study is to explore in more depth the views of classroom teachers, support staff, and administrators on the changes related to the MIS. In analyzing the findings, the authors used literature on accountability (e.g.,Marks & Nance, 2007), as well as an organization theory (Feldman, 2000) focusing on changing school routines. This theory provided a means to examine aspects of the existing attendance routine and changes that resulted from implementing the MIS. The findings suggest that harnessing technology may be more challenging and less predictable than expected because of technological glitches, implementation demands, and individuals acting to meet accountability goals. Here, the authors begin by describing how performance accountability has become a focus for public schools and which groups are held accountable for student achievement.

This study examined the job and growth satisfaction of secondary school administrators. Three sets of variables (job, organizational, and personal characteristics) were tested in terms of their impact on 2 related but distinct dependent variables: job and growth satisfaction. The participants included 153 school administrators, 66 principals, and 87 assistant principals. Some analyses combined these groups, and others examined them as separate samples. Strong support was found for the association of job characteristics and some organizational characteristics with job and growth satisfaction, but there was generally a weak association of personal characteristics with these outcomes. Implications follow from study findings. (Contains 5 tables and 5 footnotes.)

Teachers and administrators in school systems across the United States and Canada have been inundated during the last several decades with silver bullets and quick fixes in an effort to improve education. The reforms have had limited success and little long-term effect on schools and school systems. This article proposes that organizational learning (ongoing learning in a deliberate manner with a view to improvements supporting the organization's goals) has the potential to help schools and school systems renew themselves from the inside out and to improve learning (for students and adults), teaching, and leading in school systems. The authors identify 6 interrelated conditions that appear to foster organizational learning and provide a practical illustration of the conditions in the form of a fictional school created from examples in the literature.

Purpose: This paper presents routinized action theory as a way to examine the regular, habitual activities that occur in school organizations. Using this theoretical lens, school routines were analyzed in order to understand organizational stability and change. Design/methodology/approach: Using case study methods, three discrete cases are presented, a K-12 public school setting, a private international school, and a central office in an educational system. Cases were selected for their descriptive detail and illustrate different aspects of the theory. Findings: Routinized action theory posits that alterations in routines occur for different reasons: failure to produce desired outcome producing new possibilities, and/or falling short of ideal targets. In these case studies, routines were altered by management to address problems, repair what did not work, and strive toward new targets. Management also shifted resources accordingly. While these actions can help the organization survive environmental changes, routines may also restrict the organization's response to change. Practical implications: By analyzing the resources associated with routines, school administrators can understand the possibilities for accomplishing necessary work in ways that reduce environmental influences. Routines might be a useful lever for change. Originality/value: Routinized action theory may have been overlooked as a viable means to analyze educational organizations. The systematic application of this theoretical lens to schools holds significant implications for practitioners and researchers because schools are deeply routinized organizations.

Structural equation modeling was used to assess the plausibility of a conceptual model specifying hypothesized linkages among perceptions of characteristics of standards-based evaluation, work environment mediators, and career satisfaction and other outcomes. Four comprehensive high schools located in two neighboring counties in southern California provided the data for this study. The schools' districts had recently developed and implemented evaluation systems based on six California Standards for the Teaching Profession generated in 1997. One hundred and seventy-eight teachers responded to survey questions designed to capture the following constructs: understandable/relevant standards, satisfactory/helpful evaluation, role ambiguity, effort performance-rating linkage, work criteria autonomy, career satisfaction, organizational commitment, and perceptions of the effectiveness of the evaluation system. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess whether the items measuring evaluation fit two hypothesized constructs. Structural equation modeling results indicated that there are two mediators in the evaluation-career satisfaction relationship: role ambiguity and work criteria autonomy.

Recent research links the development of a collaborative community of educators to enhanced teaching and learning effectiveness. This study contributes to this research by testing a work group effectiveness model with a sample of teachers from middle school teams. The study assesses the interrelationships among the model's antecedent variables (organizational context, design features, and interpersonal processes), intermediate variables (effort, knowledge/skills applied, and appropriateness of strategies), and final outcome variables (teaching and learning effectiveness). A survey developed to capture the concepts in the model was completed by 174 teacher members of interdisciplinary instructional teams in a large urban district's middle schools. Findings indicate that two fundamental variables, knowledge/skills applied to the work and appropriateness of strategies, are core mediators in the model. Two healthy interpersonal processes variables were also found to have direct effects on perceptions that teaming had improved teaching and learning.

Describes the pay for performance program of the Brevard County, Florida, public schools, focusing on the issues involved in negotiating new pay plans, the development of Brevard county's compensation plan, and future directions for negotiating teacher compensation. The Brevard County plan contains options for teachers (professional development and student achievement goals, or both) and includes input from School Advisory Councils. (SLD)

Examined similarities and differences in teacher and principal perceptions of the effects of two state-level rewards and sanctions programs. Interviews with teachers, principals, and other administrators, and surveys of principals, indicated that overall, salary bonuses with sanctions linked to a comprehensive education reform initiative more powerfully impacted teaching improvement, principal understanding, and resource allocation to support student achievement goals. (SM)

Educational administration researchers are currently organized in two ways. They are focused on common topics that change fairly quickly and are coordinating their work both formally and informally. Most frequently published topics include teaching, learning, and testing and professional preparation and certification. Organization around critical issues is advised. (Contains 11 references.) (MLH)

Using a sample of 371 elementary and secondary teachers, this study examined whether three role stresses (role ambiguity, conflict, and overload) are related to two individually and organizationally related values and how teachers moderated stresses. Organizational commitment is affected by role stress. Teaming might increase role ambiguity. (Contains 50 references.) (MLH)

Describes changes in teacher compensation that might accompany organizational redesign in schools arranged to support teacher work groups. Discusses the relationship of teaming to overall teacher work, the investment a school or district might make to accomplish teaming, and team self-management and self-governance. (SLD)

Articles in this special issue address policy, organizational, collective-bargaining, and methodological dimensions of group- and school-based pay as they consider issues related to merit pay and show how the idea of pay for performance is being played out in policy debates. (SLD)

Workplace predictors of career satisfaction for 197 teachers involved in a career-development plan were studied. Predictors of career satisfaction vary according to divergent work roles and career phases, but information resources and hierarchy of authority for entry levels, rationality of promotion, and positive evaluations are among the important variables. (SLD)

Most previous literature on teacher knowledge- and skill-based pay has adopted a managerial perspective. This article adopts an alternative, collective bargaining viewing lens, addressing teachers' likely reactions to such plans, collective bargaining issues that may emerge between a teachers' union and a district employer concerning such plans, and union involvement at the strategic level of decision making regarding alternative pay proposals. (39 references) (MLH)

The phenomenon of teacher mentoring is examined from a micropolitical point of view. Data from 58 mentor teachers in a career ladder school district in the Southwest are used to explore alternative views of collegiality and collaboration and the nature of the mentor relationship. (SLD)

Teacher skill and knowledge-based pay plans in education could be related to major demarcation points in teacher career development. To illustrate the approach, career ladder programs in three U.S. districts and a pay system in Australia are described. Each plan includes career stages that qualify for pay increments. (SLD)

Explores the school as a workplace, incorporating structural, human relations, symbolic, and political organizational frameworks. Future examinations of the school as workplace may use multiple analytical approaches, and a multiple-framework approach may provide ways to describe perspectives of students of organization and practitioners about the way things work. (SLD)

Uses data from a state-sponsored career ladder program to examine the interrelationships between work redesign, work rewards, values, and job satisfaction. Shows that participation in work redesign is associated with job satisfaction among more experienced teachers, but not among their less experienced counterparts. Extrinsic rewards (higher starting salaries) seem more important to less experienced teachers. (Contains 46 references.) (MLH)

Analyzes site-based management structures, using specific case of teacher unions and collective bargaining. From coalitional perspective, interview data suggest that teacher union leaders may be in a quandary, shifting between traditional "bread and butter" issues and professional/collegial concerns. A struggle exists involving the union's power to control employment terms and allow its membership to make exceptions to negotiated contracts. (MLH)