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ABSTRACT Introduction: Kato-Katz is a laboratory method recommended by the Brazilian Ministry of Health (BMH) and the World Health Organization (WHO) as the gold standard for the diagnosis of human infection by Schistosoma mansoni. The method has great clinical and epidemiological relevance because it allows the parasite load quantification of the infected patient by calculating the number of eggs per gram (EPG) of feces. This classification may also be used to estimate the intensity of infection in the communities, to measure the impact of disease control measures, as well as to establish quality parameters for reading the slides. Objective: To describe the correct laboratory procedures for the parasitological diagnosis of S. mansoni infection by the Kato-Katz method based on the quality control protocol established by the Laboratory and Reference Service in Schistosomiasis/Centro de Pesquisa Aggeu Magalhães (CPqAM)/Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz)/BMH. Methods: We describe: 1) the technical steps for fecal sample preparation and reading the slides; 2) the technical limitations; 3) the standard operating procedure (SOP) to be adopted by laboratories; 4) the methodology for the internal and external quality control of the reading slides results; and 5) the tolerance limits accepted for such control. Conclusion: This study provides the laboratory which performs the diagnosis of schistosomiasis using the Kato-Katz method with parameters to implement a diagnostic service that can be evaluated internally and externally. The establishment of a quality protocol enables the comparison of data and the identification of failures in the operational procedure, which can be corrected by training personnel and taking actions for the problems identified.

In 2012 a malacological survey of the breeding sites of Biomphalaria glabrata and B. straminea, the two intermediate host snails of Schistosoma mansoni, was carried out on Itamaraca Island in Pernambuco, Brazil. This study has now been extended by studying the competition between the two species. Snails were collected and dissected to identify the species and tests were performed to verify S. mansoni infection. Student’s t test was used to compare the proportion between the two species and their breeding sites and a parasitological survey was conducted among local residents, using the Kato-Katz method. The spatial distribution of the two snail species was determined using TerraView, while a snail density map was constructed by Kernel estimate. The survey identified two breeding sites for B. glabrata with 17 specimens and 19 breeding sites for B. straminea with 459 snails, all of them negative for S. mansoni infection. The statistical analysis revealed that the proportion of the numbers of specimens and breeding sites of B. straminea (37.84 ± 9.01) were significantly greater than those of B. glabrata (8.50 ± 6.50). Parasitological examinations from 41 residents diagnosed two cases of schistosomiasis with parasite loads of 60 and 84 eggs per 1 g of stool, respectively. This indiction of a competitive process between the two snail species requires monitoring of schistosomiasis in the resident and travelling human populations occupying this environment, which could potentially result in social and economic changes on the island risking its attraction as a centre for eco-tourism.

Realizou-se levantamento malacológico na praia de Carne de Vaca, município de Goiana, litoral norte de Pernambuco, entre novembro de 2006 e outubro de 2007, com o objetivo de conhecer a fauna malacológica dessa localidade e verificar as condições naturais, pouco ou bastante alteradas das áreas de estudo através da aplicação de um protocolo de avaliação de diversidade de hábitats. Foram coletados 5.912 moluscos, representados por sete espécies e quatro famílias, dos quais, 5.209 exemplares de Biomphalaria glabrata (Say, 1818), 113 de Drepanotrema lucidum (Pfeiffer, 1839), 55 de Drepanotrema cimex (Moricand, 1837), 13 de Drepanotrema anatinum (Pfeiffer, 1839), 222 de Melanoides tuberculatus (Muller, 1774), 263 de Pomacea sp. e 37 de Physa marmorata Guilding, 1828. Entre os exemplares de B. glabrata coletados, 44 mostraram-se positivos para Schistosoma mansoni Sambon, 1907 e 91 mostraram-se positivos para outras larvas de trematódeos. Um exemplar de Pomacea sp. mostrou-se positivo para larva de trematódeo. Os dados obtidos, georreferenciados espacialmente, serão utilizados para a determinação das áreas de risco para a transmissão da esquistossomose na praia de Carne de Vaca, além de simulações computacionais para estudos de previsibilidade e comportamento do processo de expansão da esquistossomose no estado de Pernambuco.It was carried out a malacological survey at Carne de Vaca beach, Goiana municipality, Pernambuco North coast, between November 2006 and October 2007 in order to know the malacological fauna of this town and verify the natural, slightly or more modified conditions of mollusks sites by using an habitat diversity protocol analysis. From 5,912 mollusks collected, they belong to seven species and four families, as follows: 5,209 Biomphalaria glabrata (Say, 1818) specimens, 113 of Drepanotrema lucidum (Pfeiffer, 1839), 55 of Drepanotrema cimex (Moricand, 1837), 13 of Drepanotrema anatinum (Pfeiffer, 1839), 222 of Melanoides tuberculatus (Muller, 1774), 263 of Pomacea sp. and 37 of Physa marmorata Guilding, 1828. Among B. glabrata collected, 44 specimens were positive for Schistosoma mansoni Sambon, 1907 cercariae and 91 specimens were positive for other trematode larvae. One Pomacea sp. specimen was positive for trematode larvae. These data, spatially georeferenced, will be used for determination of risk' sites for schistosomiasis transmission at Carne de Vaca beach and furthermore, they will be used for computational simulations to determine the expansion process of schistosomiasis in state of Pernambuco.

This paper describes the ecology of two species of Biomphalaria: B.glabrata and B. straminea. These species have been intensively studied in Brazil and in other countries since the 1950s. The literature in this area can be broadly subdivided into three categories, linked to three distinct historical periods: 1) an accumulated store of early studies carried out in the laboratory and in the field; 2) the development of quantitative ecological models; and 3) the development of an alternative methodology for breeding snails under seminatural conditions.Aspectos ecológicos de duas espécies brasileiras de Biomphalaria, transmissoras da esquistossomose mansônica, são discutidos no presente artigo. B. glabrata e aB. straminea têm sido intensamente estudadas no Brasil e em outros países desde a década de 50. Este artigo enfatiza três momentos que marcaram o desenvolvimento histórico de nosso conhecimento sobre a biologia destes caramujos: 1. o acervo antigo acumulado de estudos de laboratório e de campo; 2. o desenvolvimento de modelos ecológicos quantitativos; 3. o desenvolvimento de metodologia alternativa para o cultivo dos caramujos em condições seminaturais.

A long-term controlled field experiment on the interactions of the populations of Biomphalaria glabrata (target population) and B. straminea (competitor) was carried out in the county of Alhandra, state of Paraíba, Brazil, during the period 1980 through 1989. Results obtained in the current paper show that the snail B. straminea has strong competitive advantages over B. glabrata. In six out of nine streams the native population of B. glabrata were totally excluded and replaced by B. straminea. There is evidence showing that seasonal dryness has marked influence on the phenomenon studied in this paper. In all the streams were B. straminea already predominated, return of B. glabrata was never observed.Um estudo experimental de campo sobre a interação populacional entre Biomphalaria glabrata (população-alvo) e Biomphalaria straminea (competidor) foi realizado no município de Alhandra, PB, no período de 1980 a 1989. Os resultados deste experimento nos levam a considerar que é possível a indução de um processo competitivo entre B. glabrata e B. straminea, uma vez que em nove dos criadouros trabalhados até o final, seis deles tiveram as populações da espécie endêmica totalmente substituídas pelo caramujo competidor. O processo competitivo ocorreu mais eficazmente naqueles criadouros sujeitos à dessecação, o que parece ter favorecido a espécie competidora, que resiste bem mais aos períodos de seca. Não houve regressão do processo, ou seja, em todos os riachos onde B. straminea se estabeleceu, o caramujo alvo não voltou a proliferar.

Growth curves and mortality rates for populations of Biomphalaria glabrata and B. straminea bred under semi-natural conditions are reponed. Snail populations of the above species were maintained for 220 weeks in indoor cement channels. Data were recorded at 20 week intervals. Crude densities are significantly different for each of the studied populations. B. glabrata showed the lower figure while B. straminea R3 strain showed the best performance. The latter is able to live in half the volume of water needed for B. glabrata when both are submitted to population pressure.Curvas de crescimento e taxas de mortalidade para populações de Biomphalaria glabrata e B. straminea, criadas em condições semi-naturais, são descritas no presente trabalho. As populações dos caramujos foram observadas durante 220 semanas em canaletas de cimento montadas no laboratório. Dados foram coletados a cada intervalo de 20 semanas. As densidades brutas de crescimento foram significantemente diferentes para cada população estudada. B. glabrata mostrou crescimento inferior às duas cepas de B. straminea. A cepa R3 desta última espécie mostrou o melhor desempenho, sendo capaz de viver em metade do volume de água necessária a B. glabrata quando ambas estão submetidas a pressão populacional.

Bela Rosa, um pequeno engenho localizado no município de São Lourenço da Mata, estado de Pernambuco, representa uma típica unidade produtora de açúcar situada na grande região da mata úmida do nordeste do Brasil. Os 370 habitantes do engenho vivem em níveis social e econômico muito baixos. A região é conhecida pelos seus elevados níveis de prevalência da esquistossomose e foi submetida nestes últimos anos a diferentes tipos de programas de controle da infecção. Utilizando dados de 1967 a 1986 e mais aqueles obtidos por um estudo epidemiológico transversal feito em 1989, os autores descrevem a tendência evolutiva da endemicidade da esquistossomose na área.Bela Rosa, a small sugar mill located in the county of São Lourenço da Mata, state of Pernambuco, is a typical sugar production unit of the large sugar cane belt along the humid and hot coast of northeast Brazil. The Bela Rosa's 370 inhabitants are living under very low social and economic levels. Known by its high prevalence rates for the disease, the region has been subjected to different types of control programs recently. Using data from 1967 to 1986 plus those from an epidemiological cross-section survey carried out in 1989, the authors describe the evolutional tendency of schistosomiasis endemicity in the area.

This paper describes the ecology of two species of Biomphalaria: B.glabrata and B. straminea. These species have been intensively studied in Brazil and in other countries since the 1950s. The literature in this area can be broadly subdivided into three categories, linked to three distinct historical periods: 1) an accumulated store of early studies carried out in the laboratory and in the field; 2) the development of quantitative ecological models; and 3) the development of an alternative methodology for breeding snails under seminatural conditions.

This paper describes the ecology of two species of Biomphalaria: B.glabrata and B. straminea. These species have been intensively studied in Brazil and in other countries since the 1950s. The literature in this area can be broadly subdivided into three categories, linked to three distinct historical periods: 1) an accumulated store of early studies carried out in the laboratory and in the field; 2) the development of quantitative ecological models; and 3) the development of an alternative methodology for breeding snails under seminatural conditions.

Praziquantel chemotherapy has been the focus of the Schistosomiasis Control Program in Brazil for the past two decades. Nevertheless, information on the impact of selective chemotherapy against Schistosoma mansoni infection under the conditions confronted by the health teams in endemic municipalities remains scarce. This paper compares the spatial pattern of infection before and after treatment with either a 40 mg/kg or 60 mg/kg dose of praziquantel by determining the intensity of spatial cluster among patients at 180 and 360 days after treatment. The spatial-temporal distribution of egg-positive patients was analysed in a Geographic Information System using the kernel smoothing technique. While all patients became egg-negative after 21 days, 17.9% and 30.9% reverted to an egg-positive condition after 180 and 360 days, respectively. Both the prevalence and intensity of infection after treatment were significantly lower in the 60 mg/kg than in the 40 mg/kg treatment group. The higher intensity of the kernel in the 40 mg/kg group compared to the 60 mg/kg group, at both 180 and 360 days, reflects the higher number of reverted cases in the lower dose group. Auxiliary, preventive measures to control transmission should be integrated with chemotherapy to achieve a more enduring impact.

The detection of specific DNA sequences by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has proved extremely valuable for the analysis of genetic disorders and the diagnosis of a variety of infectious disease pathogens. However, the application to the detection of Schistosoma mansoni is rare, despite a recommendation of the World Health Organization that a major focus of research on schistosomiasis should be on the development and evaluation of new strategies and tools for control of the disease. In this context, a few studies were published for the detection of the parasite in snails, monitoring of cercariae in water bodies, and diagnosis of human infection. The present minireview describes sensitive and specific PCR based systems to detect S. mansoni, indicating possible applications in the detection of snail infection, monitoring of transmission sites, and diagnosis of human infection.

Resolution 19 of the 54th World Health Assembly (WHA-54.19) urged member nations to promote preventive measures, ensure treatment and mobilize resources for control of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiases (STH). The minimum target is to attend 75% of all school-age children at risk by year 2010. The Brazilian Ministry of Health (MoH) recommends biennial surveys of whole communities and treatment of the positives through the Schistosomiasis Control Program within the Unified Health System (PCE-SUS). However, by 2004 the PCE-SUS had covered only 8.4% of the 1.2 million residents in the Rainforest Zone of Pernambuco (ZMP). Six of the 43 municipalities still remained unattended. Only three of the municipalities already surveyed reached coverage of 25% or more. At least 154 thousand children in the 7-14 years old range have to be examined (and treated if positive) within the next five years to attend the minimum target of the WHA 54.19 for the ZMP. To make this target feasible, it is suggested that from 2006 to 2010 the PCE-SUS actions should be complemented with school-based diagnosis and treatment, involving health and educational organs as well as community associations to include both children in schools and non-enrolled school-age children.

The Program for Schistosomiasis Control within the Unified Health System (PCE-SUS) was implemented by 1999 in the Rainforest Zone or "Zona da Mata" of Pernambuco (ZMP) aiming to carry out biennial stool surveys of whole populations through municipal health organs followed by treatment of the positives through the local units of the Family Health Program (PSF). Yearly reports from the Health Department of Pernambuco State (SES/PE) from 2002 to 2004 on the PCE-SUS surveys were assessed to evaluate whether the current estimates of prevalence in the municipalities of the ZMP are based on reliable samples so as to allow considerations on the real situation of schistosomiasis in that area. The surveys carried out in that period did not follow the major principles underlying sampling design, thus posing problems in both precision and validity of the estimates. Only 12 out of 43 municipalities had minimally reliable estimates: five with moderate prevalence (10-50%) and seven with low prevalence (< 10%). Surveys with appropriate sampling procedures aimed either at representative target groups (school-aged children) or communities are recommended for the ZMP and other endemic areas not only to provide reliable information on the current situation of schistosomiasis but also to plan adequate control strategies.

The abundance of snail hosts and the rates of infection with Schistosoma mansoni were monitored monthly for four years in two representative localities subjected to repeated chemotherapy of infected persons. Snail abundance varied from 1.0 to 4.4 collected per person/minute/station for Biomphalaria straminea and from 0.1 to 7.0 for B. glabrata. Infection rates of snails in nature varied from 0% to 15% for the former and from 0% to 70% for the latter species. Human infection increased from 35.5% to 61.9% in the locality occupied by B. straminea, and decreased from 40.3% to 20.8% in that occupied by B. glabrata. No relationship could be detected between human infection and the snail variables. Despite seasonal variations, natural infection persisted throughout the monitoring period in both snail species. It reached remarkably high levels in B. straminea when compared to those obtained by other authors probably because of differences in methodology. It is recommended that longitudinal studies should be carried out focally and periodically to avoid underestimating the prevalence of schistosome infection in snails.

A schedule of repeated chemotherapy with oxamniquine, consisting of biannual treatment of school-aged (7-13 years) children and annual treatment of all other age groups, was used in a representative rural village from a highly endemic area of schistosomiasis in Pernambuco. Significant reductions in infection were obtained only after two cycles of treatment, as the overall prevalence decreased from 72.6% to 41.7% and the geometric mean egg counts per gram of faeces among positives fell from 188.4 to 76. In a school-aged cohort (n=29) three treatments at six-month intervals were necessary to significantly reduce the proportion of positives (from 75.9% to 51.7%). In a cohort of children under 7 years of age (n=20) the proportion of positives actually increased (from 30% to 45%) despite two annual treatments. Water contact was intense and host snail density was relatively high. As there is no short-term perspective of improved sanitation, auxiliary measures such as focal mollusciciding are needed for an adequate control of schistosomiasis in this and alike areas.

BACKGROUND: Since its beginning in 1999, the Schistosomiasis Control Program within the Unified Health System (PCE-SUS) has registered a cumulative coverage of just 20% of the population from the Rainforest Zone of Pernambuco (ZMP), northeast Brazil. This jeopardizes the accomplishment of the minimum goal of the Fifty-Fourth World Health Assembly, resolution WHA54.19, of providing treatment for schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiases (STH) to 75% of school-aged children at risk, which requires attending at least 166,000 residents in the 7-14 age range by year 2010 in that important endemic area. In the present study, secondary demographic and parasitological data from a representative municipality of the ZMP are analyzed to provide evidence that the current, community-based approach to control schistosomiasis and STH is unlikely to attain the WHA-54.19 minimum goal and to suggest that school-based control actions are also needed. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Data available on the PCE-SUS activities related to diagnosis and treatment of the population from the study municipality were obtained from the State Secretary of Health of Pernambuco (SES/PE) for 2002-2006, complemented by the Municipal Secretary of Health (SMS) for 2003-2004. Data from a school-based stool survey carried out by the Schistosomiasis Reference Service of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (SRE/Fiocruz) in 2004 were used to provide information on infection status variation among school-aged children (7-14 years). According to the SES, from 2004 to 2006, only 2,977 (19.5%) of the estimated 15,288 residents of all ages were examined, of which 396 (13.3%) were positive for Schistosoma mansoni. Among these, only 180 (45.5%) were treated. According to the SMS, of the 1,766 examined in the 2003-2004 population stool survey 570 (32.3%) were children aged 7-14 years. One year later, the SRE/Fiocruz school survey revealed that the infection status among those children remained unchanged at 14%-15% prevalence. By 2006, the school-aged population was estimated at 2,981, of which 2,007 (67.3%) were enrolled as pupils. CONCLUSIONS: It is suggested that in the most troubled municipalities individual diagnosis and treatment should be concentrated in school-aged children rather than the whole population. School-based actions involving teachers and children's families may help the health teams to scale up control actions in order to attain the WHA-54.19 minimum goal. This strategy should involve health and education organs and include both enrolled and non-enrolled children.

Specific IgG and IgM responses to soluble egg antigen (SEA) and keyhole limpet haemocyanin (KLH) were measured by ELISA in patients with acute and chronic schistosomiasis. The tests based upon IgM and IgG antibodies responses to KLH presented the best diagnostic discrimination, and can be used in conjunction with clinical and epidemiological data to the differential diagnosis of acute schistosomiasis.