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More and more young adults are reporting experiences consistent with depressive disorders. There is evidence to suggest that depression and aspects of interpersonal functioning may mutually influence one another: depressive symptoms can determine specific behaviors in interpersonal settings, and likewise, interpersonal behaviors can contribute to future depressive symptoms. The relationship between depressive symptoms and interpersonal functioning is complex but can be expected to become even more intricate as communication and socialization methods evolve in response to changes in technology and culture. It is important that psychological researchers expand their interests accordingly and conduct studies that reflect the diversity in ways individuals connect with one another, to understand how modern channels of communication could impact or result in depressive symptoms.One burgeoning channel worth considering is social media. The current study examined use of multiple forms of social media and relationships with depressive symptoms. Specifically, quantity frequency of social media platform use, as well as quality of uses of social media (passive/active use), were investigated for their impact on changes in depression, and whether depression may impact changes in such uses over a two-month period. Exploratory factor analyses were conducted to determine the psychometric properties and factor structures of a social media use questionnaire created by the author. Undergraduate students (N=377) completed electronic questionnaires about depressive symptoms and social media use; approximately one month, students (N=214) completed the same questionnaires, and an additional month later, students (N=128) completed questionnaires a final time. Results from factor analyses indicated several factors from the following domains: social media experiences (acceptance from others, hostility from others, ignored by others), social media behaviors (prosocial or routine activity, harassment and attention-seeking), social media networks (distant social network, close social network), social media sharing (milestones and personal achievements, personal misfortunes), social media motives (establish relationships, stay connected, isolated or impersonal), and social media attitudes (necessary for connection, superficial and unsafe, problematic). Results from multiple cross-lagged path analyses indicated that frequency of use did not predict changes in depression, and depression did not predict changes in frequency of use, over two-months. Sharing milestones on social media and use of social media to establish relationships predicted decreases in depression over one month; however, sharing misfortunes on social media and isolated motives for use each predicted increased depression over one month. Additionally, depression predicted decreased use for establishing relationships, and decreased attitudes that social media use is necessary for connection and problematic over one month. Depression predicted increased use for isolated purposes one month later. The present study does not provide support for previous studies that have found positive relationships between frequent use of social media and depressive symptoms. However, findings suggest that aspects of quality of use, particularly social media sharing, motives, and attitudes, could influence experience of depression, and that understanding depressed persons’ use of social media may benefit from continued attention to these factors. Specifically, depressed persons may be more likely to use social media in ways that minimize opportunities to connect with others, and at the same time perceive their use to be less problematic, and use that does not contribute to socialization may fuel or maintain depressive symptoms. This research extends previous literature by providing some support for causal relationships between depressive symptoms and aspects of social media use. Replication of this study in more diverse and clinical populations and using more experimental or observational methods are recommended targets for future research.

Perfectionism is as a multidimensional personality construct that has been theorized to be a vulnerability to depression and other psychological disorders. However, cross-sectional designs are predominantly utilized to analyze these relationships, which limits conclusions that may be drawn about the impact of perfectionism on depression. The current study assessed whether perfectionism is a factor that predicts changes in affect and depressive symptoms with the experience of stress, using two methods: during a brief laboratory experiment, and prospectively, with accounts of stressful life experiences that occurred over a four-week time span. Independent effects of trait rumination on affect and depressive symptoms were also tested, as rumination is understood to predict depressed mood. Undergraduate students (N = 125) completed several questionnaires before completing two mock tasks that were modeled after subsets of an intelligence test. Students were randomly assigned to failure and success experimental conditions, provided sham performance feedback, and provided a second set of questionnaires. Approximately four weeks later, students (N = 102) completed additional electronic questionnaires. Results from multiple linear regressions indicated that socially-prescribed perfectionism, concerns over mistakes, doubts about actions, and parental concerns predicted increases in negative affect for students in the failure condition. Furthermore, parental concerns predicted decreased positive affect for students in the success condition. Trait rumination similarly predicted increases in negative affect for students in the failure condition. Three-way interactions between perfectionism, rumination, and experimental condition on affective changes indicated that parental concerns and parental expectations, as well as rumination, predicted increased negative affect in response to failure. Perfectionism and rumination also jointly predicted decreased positive affect in response to success. Socially-prescribed perfectionism predicted depressive symptoms over time when more stressors were reported. However, a three-way interaction between perfectionism, rumination, and stress on depressive symptoms suggested that self-imposed perfectionism and rumination predicted depressive symptoms over time when students reported fewer stressful experiences. The present study confirms previous findings that perfectionism driven from social pressures and evaluative concerns is associated with depressed mood and symptoms. Specifically, it was demonstrated that perfectionism acts to predict increases in negative affect and decreases in positive affect in response to feedback. Additionally, this research extends previous literature by simultaneously demonstrating that perfectionism predicts increases in depressive symptoms in response to an accumulation of stress over time. Replication of these study designs in clinical populations and social environments are recommended targets for future research.