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This Faraday Discussion was the first to focus on the increasingly central role of big data, machine learning, and artificial intelligence in the chemical sciences. The aim was to critically discuss these topics, and to explore the question of how data can enable new discoveries in chemistry, both now and in the future. The programme spanned computational and experimental work, and encompassed emerging topics such as natural language processing, machine-learned potentials, optimization strategies, and robotics and self-driving laboratories. Here I provide some brief introductory comments on the history of this field, along with some personal views on the discussion topics covered, concluding with three future challenges for this area.

The packing of organic molecular crystals is often dominated by weak non-covalent interactions, making their in situ rearrangement under external stimuli challenging to understand. We investigate a pressure-induced single-crystal-to-single-crystal (SCSC) transformation between two polymorphs of 2,4,5-triiodo-1 H -imidazole using machine learning potentials. This process involves the rearrangement of halogen and hydrogen bonds combined with proton transfer within a complex solid-state system. We developed a strategy to progressively approach the transition state along the phase transition path from both ends by using both the α and β crystal phases as initial structures for active learning. This method allowed us to develop a DFT-based machine learning potential that faithfully describes both of the stable phases and the transition processes. Our results demonstrate that these anisotropic interactions are represented accurately during molecular dynamic simulations. Bond breaking and reforming during proton transfer is observed and analysed in detail. This approach holds promise for simulating SCSC transitions in organic molecular crystals involving anisotropic interactions and chemical bond changes., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry.)

Synthetic photobiocatalysts are promising catalysts for valuable chemical transformations by harnessing solar energy inspired by natural photosynthesis. However, the synergistic integration of all of the components for efficient light harvesting, cascade electron transfer, and efficient biocatalytic reactions presents a formidable challenge. In particular, replicating intricate multiscale hierarchical assembly and functional segregation involved in natural photosystems, such as photosystems I and II, remains particularly demanding within artificial structures. Here, we report the bottom-up construction of a visible-light-driven chemical-biological hybrid nanoreactor with augmented photocatalytic efficiency by anchoring an α-carboxysome shell encasing [FeFe]-hydrogenases (H-S) on the surface of a hydrogen-bonded organic molecular crystal, a microporous α-polymorph of 1,3,6,8-tetra(4'-carboxyphenyl)pyrene (TBAP-α). The self-association of this chemical-biological hybrid system is facilitated by hydrogen bonds, as revealed by molecular dynamics simulations. Within this hybrid photobiocatalyst, TBAP-α functions as an antenna for visible-light absorption and exciton generation, supplying electrons for sacrificial hydrogen production by H-S in aqueous solutions. This coordination allows the hybrid nanoreactor, H-S|TBAP-α, to execute hydrogen evolution exclusively driven by light irradiation with a rate comparable to that of photocatalyst-loaded precious cocatalyst. The established approach to constructing new light-driven biocatalysts combines the synergistic power of biological nanotechnology with the multilength-scale structure and functional control offered by supramolecular organic semiconductors. It opens up innovative opportunities for the fabrication of biomimetic nanoreactors for sustainable fuel production and enzymatic reactions., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing financial interest., (© 2024 The Authors. Published by American Chemical Society.)

The incorporation of photoresponsive groups into porous materials is attractive as it offers potential advantages in controlling the pore size and selectivity to guest molecules. A combination of computational modeling and experiment resulted in the synthesis of two azobenzene-derived organic cages based on building blocks identified in a computational screen. Both cages incorporate three azobenzene moieties, and are therefore capable of 3-fold isomerization, using either ditopic or tetratopic aldehydes containing diazene functionality. The ditopic aldehyde forms a Tri 2 Di 3 cage via a 6-fold imine condensation and the tritopic aldehyde forms a Tet 3 Di 6 cage via a 12-fold imine condensation. The relative energies and corresponding intrinsic cavities of each isomeric state were computed, and the photoswitching behavior of both cages was studied by UV-Vis and 1 H NMR spectroscopy, including a detailed kinetic analysis of the thermal isomerization for each of the EEZ , EZZ and ZZZ metastable isomers of the Tet 3 Di 6 cage. Both cages underwent photoisomerization, where a photostationary state of up to 77% of the cis -isomer and overall thermal half-life of 110 h was identified for the Tet 3 Di 6 species. Overall, this work demonstrates the potential of computational modeling to inform the design of photoresponsive materials and highlights the contrasting effects on the photoswitching properties of the azobenzene moieties on incorporation into the different cage species.

Autonomous laboratories can accelerate discoveries in chemical synthesis, but this requires automated measurements coupled with reliable decision-making 1,2 . Most autonomous laboratories involve bespoke automated equipment 3-6 , and reaction outcomes are often assessed using a single, hard-wired characterization technique 7 . Any decision-making algorithms 8 must then operate using this narrow range of characterization data 9,10 . By contrast, manual experiments tend to draw on a wider range of instruments to characterize reaction products, and decisions are rarely taken based on one measurement alone. Here we show that a synthesis laboratory can be integrated into an autonomous laboratory by using mobile robots 11-13 that operate equipment and make decisions in a human-like way. Our modular workflow combines mobile robots, an automated synthesis platform, a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometer and a benchtop nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer. This allows robots to share existing laboratory equipment with human researchers without monopolizing it or requiring extensive redesign. A heuristic decision-maker processes the orthogonal measurement data, selecting successful reactions to take forward and automatically checking the reproducibility of any screening hits. We exemplify this approach in the three areas of structural diversification chemistry, supramolecular host-guest chemistry and photochemical synthesis. This strategy is particularly suited to exploratory chemistry that can yield multiple potential products, as for supramolecular assemblies, where we also extend the method to an autonomous function assay by evaluating host-guest binding properties., Competing Interests: Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

The controlled aggregation of organic chromophores into supramolecular structures offers a way to control and tune photocatalytic activity. However, the underlying mechanisms of charge transfer and accumulation are still unclear. Time-resolved vibrational spectroscopy is a powerful structural probe for studying photogenerated intermediates. Here, we employ time-resolved infrared (TRIR) spectroscopy to study CNP (2,6-bis(4-cyanophenyl)-4-(9-phenyl-9 H -carbazol-3-yl)pyridine-3,5-dicarbonitrile) and its supramolecular aggregates. We show that excitation of the charge transfer (CT) band of semi-crystalline nanofibers (CNP-f) gives rise to long-lived delocalised polarons, which form within the instrument response timescale. By contrast the CNP nanospheres (CNP-s) give rise to a shorter lived polaron that appears to have a greater degree of localization. CNP-f and CNP-s are known to show markedly different levels of photocatalytic activity for hydrogen and hydrogen peroxide formation which are rationalised owing to these differences in photodynamics immediately following photon absorption., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing financial interests., (This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry.)

Nanosizing confers unique functions in materials such as graphene and quantum dots. Here, we present two nanoscale-covalent organic frameworks (nano-COFs) that exhibit exceptionally high activity for photocatalytic hydrogen production that results from their size and morphology. Compared to bulk analogues, the downsizing of COFs crystals using surfactants provides greatly improved water dispersibility and light-harvesting properties. One of these nano-COFs shows a hydrogen evolution rate of 392.0 mmol g -1 h -1 (33.3 μmol h -1 ), which is one of the highest mass-normalized rates reported for a COF or any other organic photocatalysts. A reverse concentration-dependent photocatalytic phenomenon is observed, whereby a higher photocatalytic activity is found at a lower catalyst concentration. These materials also show a molecule-like excitonic nature, as studied by photoluminescence and transient absorption spectroscopy, which is again a function of their nanoscale dimensions. This charts a new path to highly efficient organic photocatalysts for solar fuel production., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Conjugated organic photoredox catalysts (OPCs) can promote a wide range of chemical transformations. It is challenging to predict the catalytic activities of OPCs from first principles, either by expert knowledge or by using a priori calculations, as catalyst activity depends on a complex range of interrelated properties. Organic photocatalysts and other catalyst systems have often been discovered by a mixture of design and trial and error. Here we report a two-step data-driven approach to the targeted synthesis of OPCs and the subsequent reaction optimization for metallophotocatalysis, demonstrated for decarboxylative sp 3 -sp 2 cross-coupling of amino acids with aryl halides. Our approach uses a Bayesian optimization strategy coupled with encoding of key physical properties using molecular descriptors to identify promising OPCs from a virtual library of 560 candidate molecules. This led to OPC formulations that are competitive with iridium catalysts by exploring just 2.4% of the available catalyst formulation space (107 of 4,500 possible reaction conditions)., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Metal-organic polyhedra (MOPs) can exhibit tunable porosity and functionality, suggesting potential for applications such as molecular separations. MOPs are typically constructed by the bottom-up multicomponent self-assembly of organic ligands and metal ions, and the final functionality can be hard to program. Here, we used trianglsalen macrocycles as preorganized building blocks to assemble octahedral-shaped MOPs. The resultant MOPs inherit most of the preorganized properties of the macrocyclic ligands, including their well-defined cavities and chirality. As a result, the porosity in the MOPs could be tuned by modifying the structure of the macrocycle building blocks. Using this strategy, we could systematically enlarge the size of the MOPs from 26.3 to 32.1 Å by increasing the macrocycle size. The family of MOPs shows experimental surface areas of up to 820 m 2 /g, and they are stable in water. One of these MOPs can efficiently separate the rare gases Xe from Kr because the prefabricated macrocyclic windows of MOPs can be modified to sit at the Xe/Kr size cutoff range.

Addressing the global fossil energy crisis necessitates the efficient utilization of sustainable energy sources. Hydrogen, a green fuel, can be generated using sunlight, water, and a photocatalyst. Employing sensitizers holds promise for enhancing photocatalyst performance, enabling high rates of hydrogen evolution through increased visible light absorption. However, sifting through millions of diverse molecules to identify suitable dyes for specific photocatalysts poses a significant challenge. In this study, we integrate genetic algorithm and geometry-frequency-noncovalent extended tight binding methods to efficiently screen 2.6 million potential sensitizers with a D-π-A-π-AA structure within a short timeframe. Subsequently, these optimized sensitizers are rigorously reassessed by using DFT/TDDFT methods, elucidating why they may serve as superior dyes compared to the reference dye WS5F, particularly in terms of light absorption, driving force, binding energy, etc. Additionally, our methodology uncovers molecular motifs of particular interest, including the furan π-bridge and the double cyano anchoring acceptor, which are prevalent in the most promising set of molecules. The developed genetic algorithm workflow and dye design principles can be extended to various compelling projects, such as dye-sensitized solar cells, organic photovoltaics, photo-induced redox reactions, pharmaceuticals, and beyond.

Organic cages can possess complex, functionalised cavities that make them promising candidates for synthetic enzyme mimics. Conformationally flexible, chemically robust structures are needed for adaptable guest binding and catalysis, but rapidly exchanging systems are difficult to resolve in solution. Here, we use low-cost calculations and high-throughput crystallisation to identify accessible conformers of a recently reported organic cage by 'locking' them in the solid state. The conformers exhibit varying distances between the internal carboxylic acid groups, suggesting adaptability for binding a wide array of target guest molecules.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are useful synthetic materials that are built by the programmed assembly of metal nodes and organic linkers 1 . The success of MOFs results from the isoreticular principle 2 , which allows families of structurally analogous frameworks to be built in a predictable way. This relies on directional coordinate covalent bonding to define the framework geometry. However, isoreticular strategies do not translate to other common crystalline solids, such as organic salts 3-5 , in which the intermolecular ionic bonding is less directional. Here we show that chemical knowledge can be combined with computational crystal-structure prediction 6 (CSP) to design porous organic ammonium halide salts that contain no metals. The nodes in these salt frameworks are tightly packed ionic clusters that direct the materials to crystallize in specific ways, as demonstrated by the presence of well-defined spikes of low-energy, low-density isoreticular structures on the predicted lattice energy landscapes 7,8 . These energy landscapes allow us to select combinations of cations and anions that will form thermodynamically stable, porous salt frameworks with channel sizes, functionalities and geometries that can be predicted a priori. Some of these porous salts adsorb molecular guests such as iodine in quantities that exceed those of most MOFs, and this could be useful for applications such as radio-iodine capture 9-12 . More generally, the synthesis of these salts is scalable, involving simple acid-base neutralization, and the strategy makes it possible to create a family of non-metal organic frameworks that combine high ionic charge density with permanent porosity., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Biohybrid photocatalysts are composite materials that combine the efficient light-absorbing properties of synthetic materials with the highly evolved metabolic pathways and self-repair mechanisms of biological systems. Here, we show the potential of conjugated polymers as photosensitizers in biohybrid systems by combining a series of polymer nanoparticles with engineered Escherichia coli cells. Under simulated solar light irradiation, the biohybrid system consisting of fluorene/dibenzo [ b,d ]thiophene sulfone copolymer (LP41) and recombinant E. coli (i.e., a LP41/HydA BL21 biohybrid) shows a sacrificial hydrogen evolution rate of 3.442 mmol g -1 h -1 (normalized to polymer amount). It is over 30 times higher than the polymer photocatalyst alone (0.105 mmol g -1 h -1 ), while no detectable hydrogen was generated from the E. coli cells alone, demonstrating the strong synergy between the polymer nanoparticles and bacterial cells. The differences in the physical interactions between synthetic materials and microorganisms, as well as redox energy level alignment, elucidate the trends in photochemical activity. Our results suggest that organic semiconductors may offer advantages, such as solution processability, low toxicity, and more tunable surface interactions with the biological components over inorganic materials.

The solar-driven photocatalytic production of hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) from water and oxygen using semiconductor catalysts offers a promising approach for converting solar energy into storable chemical energy. However, the efficiency of photocatalytic H 2 O 2 production is often restricted by the low photo-generated charge separation, slow surface reactions and inadequate stability. Here, we developed a mixed-linker strategy to build a donor-acceptor-acceptor (D-A-A) type covalent organic framework (COF) photocatalyst, FS-OHOMe-COF. The FS-OHOMe-COF structure features extended π-π conjugation that improves charge mobility, while the introduction of sulfone units not only as active sites facilitates surface reactions with water but also bolsters stability through increased interlayer forces. The resulting FS-OHOMe-COF has a low exciton binding energy, long excited-state lifetime and high photo-stability that leads to high performance for photocatalytic H 2 O 2 production (up to 1.0 mM h -1 ) with an H 2 O 2 output of 19 mM after 72 hours of irradiation. Furthermore, the catalyst demonstrates high stability, which sustained activity over 192 hours of photocatalytic experiment., (© 2024 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

We exploited 129 Xe NMR to investigate xenon gas uptake and dynamics in a porous liquid formed by dissolving porous organic cages in a cavity-excluded solvent. Quantitative 129 Xe NMR shows that when the amount of xenon added to the sample is lower than the amount of cages present (subsaturation), the porous liquid absorbs almost all xenon atoms from the gas phase, with 30% of the cages occupied with a Xe atom. A simple two-site exchange model enables an estimate of the chemical shift of 129 Xe in the cages, which is in good agreement with the value provided by first-principles modeling. T 2 relaxation times allow the determination of the exchange rate of Xe between the solvent and cage sites as well as the activation energies of the exchange. The 129 Xe NMR analysis also enables determination of the free energy of confinement, and it shows that Xe binding is predominantly enthalpy-driven.

The transformation of two-dimensional (2D) covalent-organic frameworks (COFs) into three-dimensions (3D) is synthetically challenging, and it is typically addressed through interlayer cross-linking of alkene or alkyne bonds. Here, we report the first example of the chemical reconstruction of a 2D COF to a 3D COF with a complete lattice rearrangement facilitated by base-triggered boron hybridization. This chemical reconstruction involves the conversion of trigonal boronate ester linkages to tetrahedral anionic spiroborate linkages. This transformation reticulates the coplanar, closely stacked square cobalt(II) phthalocyanine (PcCo) units into a 3D perpendicular arrangement. As a result, the pore size of COFs expands from 2.45 nm for the initial 2D square lattice ( sql ) to 3.02 nm in the 3D noninterpenetrated network ( nbo ). Mechanistic studies reveal a base-catalyzed boronate ester protodeboronation pathway for the formation of the spiroborate structure.

Robotic automation is proving itself indispensable in the modern Chemistry laboratory, but adoption is slowed down by the technical challenges of implementing such systems. This paper reports on a novel adaptive gripper mechanism that can easily and reliably grasp cylindrical and prismatic objects of various sizes with limited clearance required. The proposed design exploits the inherent compliance of a cable that is driven to fully envelope the target object. The cable is run through a rigid finger, allowing the loop to be placed around objects with minimal clearance required and to provide support for the object once the grip is complete. Thanks to the compliant nature of the mechanism, the gripper requires minimal control effort to complete a gasping task. A prototype of the gripper has been designed and built for chemistry automation tasks, where it showed very high grasp reliability with ≤ 1 % grasp failures., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Automation can transform productivity in research activities that use liquid handling, such as organic synthesis, but it has made less impact in materials laboratories, which require sample preparation steps and a range of solid-state characterization techniques. For example, powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) is a key method in materials and pharmaceutical chemistry, but its end-to-end automation is challenging because it involves solid powder handling and sample processing. Here we present a fully autonomous solid-state workflow for PXRD experiments that can match or even surpass manual data quality, encompassing crystal growth, sample preparation, and automated data capture. The workflow involves 12 steps performed by a team of three multipurpose robots, illustrating the power of flexible, modular automation to integrate complex, multitask laboratories., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry.)

Donor-acceptor heterojunctions in organic photocatalysts can provide enhanced exciton dissociation and charge separation, thereby improving the photocatalytic activity. However, the wide choice of possible donors and acceptors poses a challenge for the rational design of organic heterojunction photocatalysts, particularly for large ternary phase spaces. We accelerated the exploration of ternary organic heterojunction photocatalysts (TOHP) by using a combination of machine learning and high-throughput experimental screening. This involved 736 experiments in all, out of possible 4320 ternary combinations. The top ten most active TOHPs discovered using this strategy showed outstanding sacrificial hydrogen production rates of more than 500 mmol g -1 h -1 , with the most active ternary material reaching a rate of 749.8 mmol g -1 h -1 under 1 sun illumination. These rates of photocatalytic hydrogen generation are among the highest reported for organic photocatalysts in the literature.

We evaluate the effectiveness of fine-tuning GPT-3 for the prediction of electronic and functional properties of organic molecules. Our findings show that fine-tuned GPT-3 can successfully identify and distinguish between chemically meaningful patterns, and discern subtle differences among them, exhibiting robust predictive performance for the prediction of molecular properties. We focus on assessing the fine-tuned models' resilience to information loss, resulting from the absence of atoms or chemical groups, and to noise that we introduce via random alterations in atomic identities. We discuss the challenges and limitations inherent to the use of GPT-3 in molecular machine-learning tasks and suggest potential directions for future research and improvements to address these issues., Competing Interests: There are no conflicts to declare., (This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry.)

Chirality was traditionally considered a binary property of periodic lattices and crystals. However, the classes of two-dimensional lattices modulo rigid motion form a continuous space, which was recently parametrized by three geographic-style coordinates. The four non-oblique Bravais classes of two-dimensional lattices form low-dimensional singular subspaces in the full continuous space. Now, the deviations of a lattice from its higher symmetry neighbors can be continuously quantified by real-valued distances satisfying metric axioms. This article analyzes these and newer G-chiral distances for millions of two-dimensional lattices that are extracted from thousands of available two-dimensional materials and real crystal structures in the Cambridge Structural Database., (© 2023 The Authors. Chirality published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Crystalline porous organic salts (CPOS) are a subclass of molecular crystals. The low solubility of CPOS and their building blocks limits the choice of crystallisation solvents to water or polar alcohols, hindering the isolation, scale-up, and scope of the porous material. In this work, high throughput screening was used to expand the solvent scope, resulting in the identification of a new porous salt, CPOS-7, formed from tetrakis(4-sulfophenyl)methane (TSPM) and tetrakis(4-aminophenyl)methane (TAPM). CPOS-7 does not form with standard solvents for CPOS, rather a hydrated phase (Hydrate2920) previously reported is isolated. Initial attempts to translate the crystallisation to batch led to challenges with loss of crystallinity and Hydrate2920 forming favorably in the presence of excess water. Using acetic acid as a dehydrating agent hindered formation of Hydrate2920 and furthermore allowed for direct conversion to CPOS-7. To allow for direct formation of CPOS-7 in high crystallinity flow chemistry was used for the first time to circumvent the issues found in batch. CPOS-7 and Hydrate2920 were shown to have promise for water and CO 2 capture, with CPOS-7 having a CO 2 uptake of 4.3 mmol/g at 195 K, making it one of the most porous CPOS reported to date., (© 2023 The Authors. Chemistry - A European Journal published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Soft porous crystals combine flexibility and porosity, allowing them to respond structurally to external physical and chemical environments. However, striking the right balance between flexibility and sufficient rigidity for porosity is challenging, particularly for molecular crystals formed by using weak intermolecular interactions. Here, we report a flexible oxygen-bridged prismatic organic cage molecule, Cage-6-COOH , which has three pillars that exhibit "hinge-like" rotational motion in the solid state. Cage-6-COOH can form a range of hydrogen-bonded organic frameworks (HOFs) where the "hinge" can accommodate a remarkable 67° dihedral angle range between neighboring units. This stems both from flexibility in the noncovalent hydrogen-bonding motifs in the HOFs and the molecular flexibility in the oxygen-linked cage hinge itself. The range of structures for Cage-6-COOH includes two topologically complex interpenetrated HOFs, CageHOF-2α and CageHOF-2β . CageHOF-2α is nonporous, while CageHOF-2β has permanent porosity and a surface area of 458 m 2 g -1 . The flexibility of Cage-6-COOH allows this molecule to rapidly transform from a low-crystallinity solid into the two crystalline interpenetrated HOFs, CageHOF-2α and CageHOF-2β , under mild conditions simply by using acetonitrile or ethanol vapor, respectively. This self-healing behavior was selective, with the CageHOF-2β structure exhibiting structural memory behavior.

Closed-loop experiments can accelerate material discovery by automating both experimental manipulations and decisions that have traditionally been made by researchers. Fast and non-invasive measurements are particularly attractive for closed-loop strategies. Viscosity is a physical property for fluids that is important in many applications. It is fundamental in application areas such as coatings; also, even if viscosity is not the key property of interest, it can impact our ability to do closed-loop experimentation. For example, unexpected increases in viscosity can cause liquid-handling robots to fail. Traditional viscosity measurements are manual, invasive, and slow. Here we use convolutional neural networks (CNNs) as an alternative to traditional viscometry by non-invasively extracting the spatiotemporal features of fluid motion under flow. To do this, we built a workflow using a dual-armed collaborative robot that collects video data of fluid motion autonomously. This dataset was then used to train a 3-dimensional convolutional neural network (3D-CNN) for viscosity estimation, either by classification or by regression. We also used these models to identify unknown laboratory solvents, again based on differences in fluid motion. The 3D-CNN model performance was compared with the performance of a panel of human participants for the same classification tasks. Our models strongly outperformed human classification in both cases. For example, even with training on fewer than 50 videos for each liquid, the 3D-CNN model gave an average accuracy of 88% for predicting the identity of five different laboratory solvents, compared to an average accuracy of 32% for human observation. For comparison, random category selection would give an average accuracy of 20%. Our method offers an alternative to traditional viscosity measurements for autonomous chemistry workflows that might be used both for process control ( e.g. , choosing not to pipette liquids that are too viscous) or for materials discovery ( e.g. , identifying new polymerization catalysts on the basis of viscosification)., Competing Interests: There are no conflicts to declare., (This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry.)

Hydrogen-bonded organic frameworks (HOFs) with low densities and high porosities are rare and challenging to design because most molecules have a strong energetic preference for close packing. Crystal structure prediction (CSP) can rank the crystal packings available to an organic molecule based on their relative lattice energies. This has become a powerful tool for the a priori design of porous molecular crystals. Previously, we combined CSP with structure-property predictions to generate energy-structure-function (ESF) maps for a series of triptycene-based molecules with quinoxaline groups. From these ESF maps, triptycene trisquinoxalinedione (TH5) was predicted to form a previously unknown low-energy HOF (TH5-A) with a remarkably low density of 0.374 g cm -3 and three-dimensional (3D) pores. Here, we demonstrate the reliability of those ESF maps by discovering this TH5-A polymorph experimentally. This material has a high accessible surface area of 3,284 m 2  g -1 , as measured by nitrogen adsorption, making it one of the most porous HOFs reported to date., (© 2023 The Authors. Angewandte Chemie International Edition published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Biohybrid photosynthesis systems, which combine biological and non-biological materials, have attracted recent interest in solar-to-chemical energy conversion. However, the solar efficiencies of such systems remain low, despite advances in both artificial photosynthesis and synthetic biology. Here we discuss the potential of conjugated organic materials as photosensitisers for biological hybrid systems compared to traditional inorganic semiconductors. Organic materials offer the ability to tune both photophysical properties and the specific physicochemical interactions between the photosensitiser and biological cells, thus improving stability and charge transfer. We highlight the state-of-the-art and opportunities for new approaches in designing new biohybrid systems. This perspective also summarises the current understanding of the underlying electron transport process and highlights the research areas that need to be pursued to underpin the development of hybrid photosynthesis systems., Competing Interests: There are no conflicts to declare., (This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry.)

The synthesis of a new porous organic cage decorated with isopropyl moieties (CC21) was achieved from the reaction of triformylbenzene and an isopropyl functionalised diamine. Unlike structurally analogous porous organic cages, its synthesis proved challenging due to competitive aminal formation, rationalised using control experiments and computational modelling. The use of an additional amine was found to increase conversion to the desired cage.

Hydrogenases are microbial metalloenzymes capable of catalyzing the reversible interconversion between molecular hydrogen and protons with high efficiency, and have great potential in the development of new electrocatalysts for renewable fuel production. Here, we engineered the intact proteinaceous shell of the carboxysome, a self-assembling protein organelle for CO 2 fixation in cyanobacteria and proteobacteria, and sequestered heterologously produced [NiFe]-hydrogenases into the carboxysome shell. The protein-based hybrid catalyst produced in E. coli shows substantially improved hydrogen production under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions and enhanced material and functional robustness, compared to unencapsulated [NiFe]-hydrogenases. The catalytically functional nanoreactor as well as the self-assembling and encapsulation strategies provide a framework for engineering new bioinspired electrocatalysts to improve the sustainable production of fuels and chemicals in biotechnological and chemical applications.

Molecular packing controls optoelectronic properties in organic molecular nanomaterials. Here we report a donor-acceptor organic molecule (2,6-bis(4-cyanophenyl)-4-(9-phenyl-9H-carbazol-3-yl)pyridine-3,5-dicarbonitrile) that exhibits two aggregate states in aqueous dispersions: amorphous nanospheres and ordered nanofibres with π-π molecular stacking. The nanofibres promote sacrificial photocatalytic H 2 production (31.85 mmol g -1  h -1 ) while the nanospheres produce hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) (3.20 mmol g -1 h -1 in the presence of O 2 ). This is the first example of an organic photocatalyst that can be directed to produce these two different solar fuels simply by changing the molecular packing. These different packings affect energy band levels, the extent of excited state delocalization, the excited state dynamics, charge transfer to O 2 and the light absorption profile. We use a combination of structural and photophysical measurements to understand how this influences photocatalytic selectivity. This illustrates the potential to achieve multiple photocatalytic functionalities with a single organic molecule by engineering nanomorphology and solid-state packing., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Limited.)

The design of molecular organic photocatalysts for reactions such as water splitting requires consideration of factors that go beyond electronic band gap and thermodynamic driving forces. Here, we carried out a theoretical investigation of three molecular photocatalysts (1-3) that are structurally similar but that show different hydrogen evolution activities (25, 23 & 0 μmol h -1 for 1-3, respectively). We used density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT calculations to evaluate the molecules' optoelectronic properties, such as ionization potential, electron affinity, and exciton potentials, as well as the interaction between the molecular photocatalysts and an idealized platinum cocatalyst surface. The 'static' picture thus obtained was augmented by probing the nonadiabatic dynamics of the molecules beyond the Born-Oppenheimer approximation, revealing a different picture of exciton recombination and relaxation for molecule 3. Our results suggest that slow exciton recombination, fast relaxation to the lowest-energy excited state, and a shorter charge transfer distance between the photocatalyst and the metal cocatalyst are important features that contribute to the photocatalytic hydrogen evolution activity of 1 and 2, and may partly rationalize the observed inactivity of 3, in addition to its lower light absorption profile.

Porous materials are the subject of extensive research because of potential applications in areas such as gas adsorption and molecular separations. Until recently, most porous materials were solids, but there is now an emerging class of materials known as porous liquids. The incorporation of intrinsic porosity or cavities in a liquid can result in free-flowing materials that are capable of gas uptakes that are significantly higher than conventional non-porous liquids. A handful of porous liquids have also been investigated for gas separations. Until now, the release of gas from porous liquids has relied on molecular displacement (e.g., by adding small solvent molecules), pressure or temperature swings, or sonication. Here, we explore a new method of gas release which involves photoisomerisable porous liquids comprising a photoresponsive MOF dispersed in an ionic liquid. This results in the selective uptake of CO 2 over CH 4 and allows gas release to be controlled by using UV light., (© 2022 The Authors. Chemistry - A European Journal published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

This paper develops geographic style maps containing two-dimensional lattices in all known periodic crystals parameterized by recent complete invariants. Motivated by rigid crystal structures, lattices are considered up to rigid motion and uniform scaling. The resulting space of two-dimensional lattices is a square with identified edges or a punctured sphere. The new continuous maps show all Bravais classes as low-dimensional subspaces, visualize hundreds of thousands of lattices of real crystal structures from the Cambridge Structural Database, and motivate the development of continuous and invariant-based crystallography., (open access.)

A porous molecular crystal (TSCl) was found to crystallise from dichloromethane and water during the synthesis of tetrakis(4-sulfophenylmethane). Crystal structure prediction (CSP) rationalises the driving force behind the formation of this porous TSCl phase and the intermolecular interactions that direct its formation. Gas sorption analysis showed that TSCl is permanently porous with selective adsorption of CO 2 over N 2 , H 2 and CH 4 and a maximum CO 2 uptake of 74 cm 3 g -1 at 195 K. Calculations revealed that TSCl assembles via a combination of weak hydrogen bonds and strong dispersion interactions. This illustrates that CSP can underpin approaches to crystal engineering that do not involve more intuitive directional interactions, such as hydrogen bonding.

The inverse vulcanization (IV) of elemental sulfur to generate sulfur-rich functional polymers has attracted much recent attention. However, the harsh reaction conditions required, even with metal catalysts, constrains the range of feasible crosslinkers. We report here a photoinduced IV that enables reaction at ambient temperatures, greatly broadening the scope for both substrates and products. These conditions enable volatile and gaseous alkenes and alkynes to be used in IV, leading to sustainable alternatives for environmentally harmful plastics that were hitherto inaccessible. Density functional theory calculations reveal different energy barriers for thermal, catalytic and photoinduced IV processes. This protocol circumvents the long curing times that are common in IV, generates no H 2 S by-products, and produces high-molecular-weight polymers (up to 460,000 g mol -1 ) with almost 100% atom economy. This photoinduced IV strategy advances both the fundamental chemistry of IV and its potential industrial application to generate materials from waste feedstocks., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Limited.)

Many of the highest-performing polymer photocatalysts for sacrificial hydrogen evolution from water have contained dibenzo[ b , d ]thiophene sulfone units in their polymer backbones. However, the reasons behind the dominance of this building block are not well understood. We study films, dispersions, and solutions of a new set of solution-processable materials, where the sulfone content is systematically controlled, to understand how the sulfone unit affects the three key processes involved in photocatalytic hydrogen generation in this system: light absorption; transfer of the photogenerated hole to the hole scavenger triethylamine (TEA); and transfer of the photogenerated electron to the palladium metal co-catalyst that remains in the polymer from synthesis. Transient absorption spectroscopy and electrochemical measurements, combined with molecular dynamics and density functional theory simulations, show that the sulfone unit has two primary effects. On the picosecond timescale, it dictates the thermodynamics of hole transfer out of the polymer. The sulfone unit attracts water molecules such that the average permittivity experienced by the solvated polymer is increased. We show that TEA oxidation is only thermodynamically favorable above a certain permittivity threshold. On the microsecond timescale, we present experimental evidence that the sulfone unit acts as the electron transfer site out of the polymer, with the kinetics of electron extraction to palladium dictated by the ratio of photogenerated electrons to the number of sulfone units. For the highest-performing, sulfone-rich material, hydrogen evolution seems to be limited by the photogeneration rate of electrons rather than their extraction from the polymer.

Two-dimensional (2D) metal-organic framework nanosheets (MONs) or membranes are classes of periodic, crystalline polymeric materials that may show unprecedented physicochemical properties due to their modular structures, high surface areas, and high aspect ratios. Yet preparing 2D MONs from multiple components and two different types of polymerization reaction remains challenging and less explored. Here, we report the synthesis of MOF films via interfacial polymerization, which involves three active monomers for simultaneous polycondensation and polycoordination taking place in a confined interface. The well-defined lamellar structure of the MOF films allowed feasible and scalable exfoliation to produce free-standing 2D MONs with high aspect ratio up to 2000:1 and ultrathin thickness (∼1.7 nm). The pore structure was revealed by high-resolution TEM images with near-atomic precision. The imide-linkage of MONs provided superior thermal (up to 530 °C) and good chemical stability in the pH range from 3 to 12. More importantly, the MONs exhibited exceptional catalytic activity and superior reusability for the hydroboration reactions of alkynes, in which the turnover frequency (TOF) reached 41734 h -1 , which is 2-4 orders of magnitude greater than that reported for homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts.

Porous materials that contain ultrafine pore apertures can separate hydrogen isotopes via kinetic quantum sieving (KQS). However, it is challenging to design materials with suitably narrow pores for KQS that also show good adsorption capacities and operate at practical temperatures. Here, we investigate a metal-organic cage (MOC) assembled from organic macrocycles and Zn II ions that exhibits narrow windows (<3.0 Å). Two polymorphs, referred to as 2α and 2β, were observed. Both polymorphs exhibit D 2 /H 2 selectivity in the temperature range 30-100 K. At higher temperature (77 K), the D 2 adsorption capacity of 2β increases to about 2.7 times that of 2α, along with a reasonable D 2 /H 2 selectivity. Gas sorption analysis and thermal desorption spectroscopy suggest a gate-opening effect of the MOCs pore aperture. This promotes KQS at temperatures above liquid nitrogen temperature, indicating that MOCs hold promise for hydrogen isotope separation in real industrial environments., (© 2022 The Authors. Angewandte Chemie International Edition published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Polymer photocatalysts have received growing attention in recent years for photocatalytic hydrogen production from water. Most studies report hydrogen production with sacrificial electron donors, which is unsuitable for large-scale hydrogen energy production. Here we show that the palladium/iridium oxide-loaded homopolymer of dibenzo[b,d]thiophene sulfone (P10) facilitates overall water splitting to produce stoichiometric amounts of H 2 and O 2 for an extended period (>60 hours) after the system stabilized. These results demonstrate that conjugated polymers can act as single component photocatalytic systems for overall water splitting when loaded with suitable co-catalysts, albeit currently with low activities. Transient spectroscopy shows that the IrO 2 co-catalyst plays an important role in the generation of the charge separated state required for water splitting, with evidence for fast hole transfer to the co-catalyst., (© 2022 The Authors. Angewandte Chemie International Edition published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

A high-throughput sonochemical synthesis and testing strategy was developed to discover covalent organic frameworks (COFs) for photocatalysis. In total, 76 conjugated polymers were synthesized, including 60 crystalline COFs of which 18 were previously unreported. These COFs were then screened for photocatalytic hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) production using water and oxygen. One of these COFs, sonoCOF-F2, was found to be an excellent photocatalyst for photocatalytic H 2 O 2 production even in the absence of sacrificial donors. However, after long-term photocatalytic tests (96 h), the imine sonoCOF-F2 transformed into an amide-linked COF with reduced crystallinity and loss of electronic conjugation, decreasing the photocatalytic activity. When benzyl alcohol was introduced to form a two-phase catalytic system, the photostability of sonoCOF-F2 was greatly enhanced, leading to stable H 2 O 2 production for at least 1 week.