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The Chilean copper mining industry generates large amounts of waste rock materials. These structures must be designed, operated, and closed considering their physical stability. Although these structures generally do not present physical stability problems, superficial failures may occur, where waste rock material is subjected to low confining pressures. The identification of the internal friction angle, necessary for stability calculations, is based on the characterisation of these materials under high confining pressures. This assumption is not representative of the loading conditions in the superficial layers. To address this issue, numerical large-scale triaxial tests, using the contact dynamics method, are performed to identify the internal friction angle of these materials under low confining pressures. To model these material, irregular polyhedrons were generated using statistical data of crushed aggregates, considering the morphology and the particle size distribution from experimental waste rock materials. The proposed numerical approach was validated by comparing it to literature data for confining pressures over 0.5 MPa. Our results indicate that the internal friction angle stabilises at 39° for confining pressures below 0.1 MPa. This study provides important insights into the physical stability of waste rock dumps and contributes to the development of more accurate stability calculations for these structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The copper industry continuously uses great amounts of Cr-containing refractories, which are installed in all heating devices, despite their known negative environmental impact. The development of alternative materials seems feasible via replacing chromite spinel with other Cr-free spinel, using magnesia or alumina as a dominant component in the composition of new refractories. In light of the longstanding issue, the article presents the properties of key refractory raw materials (magnesia and alumina) and potential Cr-free spinels which can be combined to emerge a new generation of refractories dedicated to the copper industry. Subsequently, the results of FactSage corrosion simulations were revealed for Cr-refractories and seven Cr-free magnesia-based refractories containing spinels of different chemistry against industrial copper converter slag with Fe/SiO 2 of 2.5. Through tracking the changes in solid and liquid phases appearing during interactions in a temperature range of 1100–1400 °C as well as liquid viscosity alterations, the most prospective solutions were identified with reference to the properties of commercial MgO-Cr₂O₃ refractories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the largest producer and consumer of copper, China is facing enormous challenges from carbon peaking and neutrality. This article adopts "bottom‐up" and "top‐down" methods to construct a more accurate model, to predict the CO2 emissions of China's copper smelting industry, and explores its potential for carbon reduction in the future from three scenarios as the baseline scenario (BAU), the general low‐carbon (NLC), and the enhanced low‐carbon (ELC). The results show that the CO2 emissions can achieve a peak in 2028 either in NLC or ELC scenarios, with a peak range of 14.9–16.88 million tonnes. Prior to reaching the peak, the contributions of energy adjustment, material substitution, and process selection to carbon reduction have significantly improved, and the contribution rates increased from 30.91%, 4.11%, and 1.46% to 42.7%, 32.07%, and 15.63% in ELC scenario. After the peak, the contribution of energy adjustment gradually slows down, while the material substitution continues to increase, and the contribution rates increased from 21.25% and 32.07% to 29.38% and 40.01% in NLC and ELC scenarios. In the future, concentrate oxygen‐enriched bottom‐blowing smelting and direct refining from waste copper anode furnaces show ideal potential for carbon reduction before 2025, increasing the proportion of recycled copper production, and adjusting energy structure will be more effective from 2025 to 2035. The conclusions of this study can provide a scientific basis for formulating policy recommendations for green and low‐carbon development of the copper industry in China and all over the world in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Iran is considered one of the countries with a relative advantage in the field of mining and related industries due to its important mineral resources and reserves. This issue increases the importance and priority of development programs in the mining and mineral industries sector. Copper, after steel, ranks second among the major metals in terms of value-added production in the world. Iran, with a reserve of about 34 million tons of copper, owns 4% of the world's copper reserves. This article examines the analytical and comparative analysis of copper industry development programs in Iran and India. Although both countries have started their own development programs in the copper industry almost simultaneously, India was ranked among the top economic powers in Asia in 2018 compared to Iran. On the other hand, with some economic growth indicators surpassing China, some analysts believe that this trend may continue and India may achieve growth similar to China and even replace it. On this basis, India’s strategic plans in the field of copper can greatly help in formulating strategic plans in Iran’s copper industry. According to studies conducted in Iran, the most important challenges in the copper industry include increasing the amount of government salaries and export duties, non-entry of mining and industrial machinery, round-the-clock laws, and fluctuations in exchange rates and inflation. This research has examined the damage and analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of Iran’s copper industry program, reviewed the current situation and copper industry development programs, compared it with India, and addressed the challenges ahead. Finally, solutions have been proposed for the development of this important industry. Introduction Iran is located on one of the two copper belts in the world and is considered one of the areas with the economic potential of copper. Evaluations show that Iran’s share of the world’s 20 million tons of copper production is less than 1.5%. The share of the industry in Iran’s gross domestic product is 7%, of which copper covers 1% of the 7%. In fact, the share of the copper industry in Iran’s gross domestic product is 1%, which is relatively low given the volume of copper mineral reserves. Therefore, considering the importance of the copper industry in the country’s economy as a productive sector and the increasing demand for this metal in the world, having an appropriate industrial strategy to maximize the use of copper mines and related industries is important and necessary. One of the ways to develop the country quickly is to focus on the mining industry alongside export development. Industrial development is important for national development programs from various aspects. Employment, poverty alleviation, proper use of skilled labor, improvement of regional and international status of the country, meeting internal needs, and enhancing national identity are among the aspects of development that have been tied to industrial development. In this regard, according to the emphasis and statements of the upper-level documents, especially the five-year development plans in the last decade, the subject of drafting an industrial development strategy has been one of the important demands of the government and the relevant ministry so that with the determination of industrial policies at horizontal and vertical levels, the necessary institutional infrastructure for better decision-making by private sector activists can be provided in a more reassuring environment by the government. Methods The most important challenges in the copper industry in Iran include problems related to sanctions and the resulting lack of access to modern technologies, lack of support for small and medium-sized businesses, price differences in the commodity exchange and free market and their impact on the trade market and copper products, and the level of access of consumers to the market. The challenges of downstream industries are among the main challenges of this market. Sanctions have caused severe fluctuations in exchange rates and have affected the government's economic and trade policies, ultimately leading to increased production costs, market fluctuations, declining exports, loss of some export markets, rent-seeking, thriving intermediaries, and numerous problems in the field of financing and capital circulation of mining units and mining industries in the country. In addition to sanctions, restrictions and obstacles resulting from the government's economic and trade policies such as exchange policies, market intervention, and mandatory pricing of mineral and metal products by the Market Regulation Headquarters, prevention of exports and providing the grounds for rent and intermediation have become a major internal obstacle to production in the country. In the conditions of the domestic market recession, most mineral and mining products have experienced a decline in exports, and among the country's economic activists, it is known as self-sanctioning. One of the most important internal obstacles in the mining and mining industries sector is ambiguity in calculating the amount of government salaries for mines, non-return of government salary revenues for expenses in the mining sector, serious conflicts between mining activities, the environment and natural resources, the intervention of the Market Regulation Headquarters in pricing mineral and metal products, and creating export barriers, inaction in policymaking for mines and mining industries on the verge of bankruptcy such as the cement industry and lack of necessary credits for capital facilities in the circulation of mining units and mining industries. Another important issue that can be investigated in this area is the creation of mining clusters. There are many small copper mines scattered throughout the country with small reserves that can have a significant impact on the country's production with proper measures. In fact, the role of small mines in domestic production and employment is not prominent and they are not valued. As a support, small mines that are reasonably transportable and have a justifiable relationship between them can be consolidated into a consortium, and each of these dependent mines can be involved in the reserves and grade of this consortium, and then the government can also support them by providing facilities. Another effect of sanctions is the update of equipment, which has also affected the copper sector. In Iran, since most mining and industrial machinery is imported, production costs are even higher than countries that own these technologies, even under normal conditions. Now, despite the existing erosion sanctions, the entry of non-standard and inappropriate goods through the black market with a delay and at a price several times higher than the real price, plus the inability to export quality products made domestically to target markets and the obligation to stop production or sale of the produced product to the market with low or sometimes negative profit, are all part of the problems of production units. Factors such as US sanctions, severe fluctuations in exchange rates, and a set of economic and trade policies of the government have led to increased production costs, market fluctuations, declining exports, loss of some export markets, rent-seeking, thriving intermediaries, and numerous problems in the field of financing and capital circulation of mining units and mining industries in the country. In the past, the most important problems in the copper industry in India were mainly related to the shortage and lack of access to mineral reserves and their environmental consequences. This section examines the major problems of the copper industry as well as the causes and factors of change in India's copper industry strategic document. The analysis shows that there is a huge difference between the processing plant capacity and the copper mine capacity in India. While India's copper processing plants have a capacity of about one million tons per year, only 35,000 tons of refined copper can be extracted from the current production of copper ore in India. Copper mining and production in India only meets 4% of the country's demand. The growth of India’s infrastructure is reflected in the growth of copper consumption in the country. The consumption of refined copper has increased at a compound annual growth rate of 2.4% from 2015 to 2019. The need for copper wire in infrastructure and renewable energy projects, an increase in automobile production (which has grown by 3.7%), and an increase in the production of durable consumer goods (refrigerators and gas coolers have increased by 9.6% and 7.0%, respectively) have led to an increase in cpper consumption in the 5 years ending in 2019 (Urvisha, 2019). Results After examining and discussing the problems and pathologies of the National Copper Industries Company of Iran for the implementation of its programs, it is faced with some ambiguities and questions that will be discussed below, and solutions have been proposed based on a comparison with India. Iran, like India, faces a shortage of the necessary concentrate and ore to achieve its development goals. There are several solutions to solve these problems. One of the effective ways to supply the necessary concentrate for the project is to expand the existing mines that are currently active and under operation. 10% of the required concentrate for the copper industry in Iran is supplied by companies that operate small mines in the country. These companies, including Chahar Gonbad Kerman, Mesdarakhtegan Takhtagonbad, Rangin Metal Copper, Kian Copper Jozam, Minakan, and Madvar Mining Production, mostly sell their products as feed to the National Copper Industries Company of Iran. However, there are still many small copper mines in the country that are inactive. With support and capital, these mines can be revitalized and brought back into the production cycle. Based on the findings of this research, it is essential for the government and decision-makers in this important area to focus on important issues in order to develop and formulate plans for this industry. In addition to reducing the concentration of investment in a few specific provinces, it is necessary to take important measures and solutions to streamline production, create regulations and laws, remove production and investment barriers, and implement operational solutions. The following are some of these measures: Developing and approving a comprehensive plan for nationwide exploration as an upper-level document and the most important pillar of sustainable supply of mineral materials in the shortest possible time. Allocating a significant and specific budget from the profits of IMIDRO and profitable specialized state-owned companies as a percentage of annual profits to exploration activities and obliging the implementation of exploration operations within the framework of the comprehensive plan for nationwide exploration. Prohibiting the government from engaging in business activities and obliging the transfer of mining management and production units to the qualified private sector. Amending relevant laws and regulations, including; Resolving the problem of blocked areas by government agencies, Amending customs laws for the import of machinery and other mining areas and Amending export laws. Discussions Iran and India are among the first growing countries with development plans. In 2018, India was ranked among the top economic powers in Asia compared to Iran. On the other hand, with some economic growth indicators surpassing China, some analysts believe that this trend may continue and India may achieve growth similar to China and even replace it. Therefore, India's strategic plans in the field of copper can greatly help in formulating strategic plans in the copper industry of Iran. Exploration operations in a large part of the country's area have not yet been completed, and there is a need for planning and expanding executive activities in this area. In the mining sector, there is currently no desirable situation in the country, and the production of basic metals such as copper and steel is between 1 to 2 percent of the mineral reserves, which is less than global standards. In general, as mentioned, the existing problems in the country's development plans, especially in mining plans, can be divided into problems in program goals, planning system, approval process of development plans, implementation process of development plans, and how to monitor and evaluate programs. Studies conducted in the copper industry section also show that the capacity of cathode production factories is not consistent with the amount of mineral extraction, and the extracted mineral material provides almost half of the capacity of the factories. It is also necessary to plan the objectives of the programs for the production of cathode copper based on the existing reserves and the country's potential in supplying concentrate and concentrate. In addition, the country’s internal needs and its potential for exports due to sanctions should be considered in these goals. It seems that solving problems such as easier import of mining machinery, given the country’s disorganized transportation fleet, reducing government salaries, freeing up areas, tax exemptions for exploration activities, lack of pricing for copper exports or sales on the commodity exchange, removing and amending cumbersome laws, and developing diplomatic relations can make the future of the copper industry in Iran clearer. Another important issue in this area, compared to India in recent years, has been the problem of feed and concentrate shortages. India’s strategy for expanding existing mines, reopening abandoned mines, and exploring new and undeveloped mines has been a factor in growth and development in developing countries such as India. In the eighth development plan In 1992, India seriously invested in private and foreign investment in the copper industry, while in Iran, this issue still seems very distant. Another important issue in this area, compared to India in recent years, has been the problem of feed and concentrate shortages. India’s strategy for expanding existing mines, reopening abandoned mines, and exploring new and undeveloped mines has been a factor in growth and development in developing countries such as India. In Iran, this industry has not yet had a clear strategy in planning and production, even in state-owned mines.

Among the unresolved questions about pre-Roman metallurgical industries are the extent and severity of the pollution they produced and the potential harm inflicted on the societies associated with them. Research on this topic has resulted in conflicting conclusions. Based on measurements of heavy metal enrichment in soils, archaeological sediments, plants and skeletal remains, interpretations have varied between catastrophic, global (intercontinental) effects to a restricted impact relevant only to those directly working at the furnaces. In the current study we focus on Timna Valley in the Southern Arabah (southern Israel). Based on high-resolution pXRF geochemical surveys of two smelting camps from different periods, accompanied by test excavations, we demonstrate that (1) mapping elemental concentrations in soil is an effective tool for identifying and characterizing various activity areas in archaeological sites, such as metal production, livestock penning and domestic and industrial waste disposal; (2) in Timna, the intra-site organization of production and scale of metallurgical activities changed substantially between the Early Bronze Age and the Iron Age; (3) the heavy metal enrichment (Cu/Pb) of soil due to smelting is spatially discrete, concentrated only in areas directly associated with these activities; and (4) this enrichment aligns with the spatial distribution of metallurgical waste, suggesting that lead emission to the atmosphere was minimal and that the documented heavy metals are not bioavailable. Our results, combined with a comprehensive survey of previously published data, support the minimalist interpretation of the polluting effects of metallurgical activities on ancient societies, at least for pre-Roman copper production industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The final report on the Edom Lowlands Regional Archaeology Project concludes that local nomadic tribes created a complex polity at early Iron Age Faynan, in southern Jordan, that was responsible for a radical shift in copper production to an industrial scale. Erez Ben-Yosef has subsequently used these conclusions as the key example in a theoretical argument about the social complexity – and, usually, archaeological invisibility – of nomadic societies. A review of the archaeological evidence from Faynan indicates that the sudden change at the beginning of the 10th century bce should not be attributed to local nomads. Evidence from the Wadi Fidan 40 cemetery – both material culture and chemical analysis of teeth – shows that its nomadic inhabitants did not actively participate in the copper industry. There is no evidence of a process of transition from nomadism to sedentarism at Faynan, and its architecture does not reflect any influence or antecedents in the archaeology of nomads. The evidence shows close material culture connections with the western Negev and the major site of Tel Masos. The scenario that best fits the evidence is that Masos took direct control of copper production at Faynan and developed it as an industrial site to exponentially increase the copper trade – Masos had the resources, technical skills, an architectural tradition, and connections to trade networks that the local nomads lacked, and which transformed Faynan. Hundreds of sites in the Negev Highlands were settled by pastoralists who found employment both in production and transport in the burgeoning copper industry. The industrial transformation of Faynan, along with the settlement of Tel Masos and the Negev Highlands sites, was short-lived, and lasted little more than a hundred years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The process of circular economy is gaining momentum in view of the ongoing nature depletion scenario in the world. The present study develops a co-flow econometric model on Cobb–Douglas aggregate production function framework for the circular economy process. The developed model is estimated using full information maximum likelihood estimation for the Indian copper industry. For the present systemic behaviour sustaining to future, the primary and secondary copper production was found to exhibit counterintuitive behaviour of "overshoot and collapse" beyond the year 2026. It is evidenced that the maximum environmental impact out of circular economy occurs in 2025 and maximum reduction of environmental impact occurs in 2029 in the copper industry. The circular economy induced rebound effect is found to fluctuate between the range of − 2.57 to 2.16 with backfire, partial rebound and super-conservation. The rebound effect is found to be unstable over time. The resource displacements show an overshoot and collapse behavior during the period 2025 and 2027. The overshoot and collapse behaviour needs more exploration to understand the underlying resource dynamics and for designing, experimenting and implementing nature conservation policies as the resource limits are approached. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intensive economic development is associated with an increasing demand for raw materials, including minerals. An illustrative example of this issue is the development of the copper industry. A significant problem arising from the scale of copper production is the management of an ever-growing amount of post-flotation tailings. This necessitates the need to ensure the continuity of safe storage. This study presents the results of studies on the behavior of deposits in the Żelazny Most Tailings Storage Facility (Poland). The primary objective of this study was to estimate the settlements of tailings under variable deposition conditions. The results were assessed using two methods: indirect and direct; this was based on cone penetration test (CPTU) results. The results were verified using Modified Cam Clay (MCC) modeling. Depending on the type of test, settlements ranged from several dozen centimeters to over three meters. Despite the observed differences, the results of both CPTU methods indicate a convergent trend in tailings behavior. Conversely, the results estimated using the direct method and numerical modeling demonstrate a high level of agreement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessing past and ongoing climate change in the central Andes is critical for understanding the impact of future environmental changes under anthropogenic warming. Emerging from springs located in Bolivia and flowing into northern Chile's Atacama Desert, the Silala River contains inset, terraced wetland (or in‐stream) deposits that provide a unique opportunity to study the impact of past hydroclimate change in a sensitive groundwater system with a small catchment area. After an initial (late Pleistocene) period of deep incision to form the present ravine, in‐stream wetland fine‐grained deposits formed during three phases of aggradation dated to >8.5–1.9 ka (Unit 1), >0.65–0.2 ka (Unit 2), and <0.2 ka to the recent 20th century (Unit 4). These phases of accumulation were coeval with periods of well‐dated records of elevated groundwater tables throughout northern Chile. Phases of abrupt downcutting occurred due to a lowering of the water table after 1.9 ka and before 0.2 ka. The cycle of erosion and deposition clearly continues to the present as evinced by the very recent (21st century) incision of Unit 4 (>1.5 m in some areas) throughout sectors of the Silala where dried‐out standing vegetation can be seen. Such recent incision may be due to multiple different factors, including recent climate change coupled with intense extraction of groundwater resources by the copper mining industry. This article is categorized under:Human Water > Water GovernanceScience of Water > Hydrological ProcessesScience of Water > Water and Environmental Change [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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