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Purpose: Spinal myxopapillary ependymoma (MPE) often presents with a multifocal distribution, complicating attempts at resection. There remains no standard approach to irradiating these patients. We report disease control and toxicity in pediatric patients with multifocal spinal MPE treated with limited-volume proton therapy., Materials/methods: Twelve patients (≤21 years old) with multifocal spinal MPE were treated between 2009 and 2018 with limited-volume brain-sparing proton therapy. Median age was 13.5 years (range, 7-21). Radiotherapy was given as adjuvant therapy after primary surgery in five patients (42%) and for recurrence in seven (58%). No patient received prior radiation. Eleven patients (92%) had evidence of gross disease at radiotherapy. Eleven patients received 54 GyRBE; one received 50.4 GyRBE. Treatment toxicity was graded per the CTCAEv4.0. We estimated disease control and survival using the Kaplan-Meier product-limit method., Results: The median follow-up was 3.6 years (range, 1.8-10.6). The five-year actuarial rates of local control, progression-free survival, and overall survival were 100%, 92%, and 100%, respectively. One patient experienced an out-of-field recurrence in the spine superior to the irradiated region. No patients developed in-field recurrences. Following surgery and irradiation, one patient developed grade three spinal kyphosis and one patient developed grade 2 unilateral L5 neuropathy., Conclusion: 54 GyRBE to a limited volume appears effective for disseminated spinal MPE in both the primary and salvage settings, sparing children the toxicity of full craniospinal irradiation. Compared with historical reports, this approach using proton therapy improves the therapeutic ratio, resulting in minimal side effects and high rates of disease control., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Background: Standard doses of craniospinal irradiation (CSI) are 23.4 Gy for patients with average-risk and 36 Gy for those with high-risk medulloblastoma (MB). We investigated whether intensified chemotherapy including intrathecal chemotherapy with simultaneous irradiation is able to reduce CSI dose to 18 Gy., Methods: Newly diagnosed average-risk patients aged 3-11 years and high-risk patients aged 3-18 years were eligible. Patients with Stage M1-4 disease were classified as high-risk MB and the others, including M0 patients with >1.5 cm 2 postoperative residual tumor, were classified as average-risk MB. Patients received chemotherapy consisting of cyclophosphamide, etoposide, cisplatin, and vincristine. Radiotherapy was started concomitantly with the second course of chemotherapy. Radiation doses were 50 Gy to the primary site and 18 Gy to the craniospinal axis. Average-risk patients received five courses of chemotherapy. High-risk patients received high-dose chemotherapy consisting of thiotepa and melphalan following four courses of chemotherapy. All patients received intrathecal methotrexate., Results: From 2006 to 2014, 48 patients (35 average and 13 high risk) who met the eligibility/exclusion criteria were enrolled. The 3-year progression-free survival (PFS) and 3-year overall survival (OS) were 90.5% (standard error 5.2%) and 93.9% (4.2%), respectively, for average-risk patients, and 100% and 100%, respectively, for high-risk patients. There was no leukoencephalopathy or treatment-related deaths. Two patients experienced secondary cancer., Conclusions: These results suggest that CSI 18 Gy is adequate at least in a proportion of patients with MB treated with intensified chemotherapy including intrathecal methotrexate and simultaneous irradiation, though the results in high-risk patients were only exploratory., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Many attempts to reduce radiation fields for intracranial germ cell tumors (iGCTs) remain unsuccessful. To assess the possibility of reduction, we analyzed registry data of 57 patients who mostly underwent local irradiation for iGCTs between 1997 and 2006. The recommended treatment for pure germinomas (PGNs) included 3 courses of cisplatin and etoposide followed by 24 Gy local irradiation. Intensified chemotherapy using a combination of cyclophosphamide and intrathecal methotrexate was recommended for human chorionic gonadotropin-producing germinomas (hCG-GNs) and nongerminomatous germ cell tumors (NGGCTs); both received 50.4 Gy local irradiation. High-dose chemotherapy was only administered for residual NGGCTs after chemoradiotherapy. Craniospinal irradiation was recommended only in metastatic cases. During the median follow-up of 114.8 months, 8 of 9 relapses from 24 PGNs occurred outside irradiation fields, with a 5-year progression-free survival (5-year PFS) of 75%±8.8%. Conversely, no recurrences occurred from 11 hCG-GNs, with a 5-year PFS of 100%. Eleven of 22 patients with NGGCTs received high-dose chemotherapy; the 5-year PFS was 81.3%±8.4%; 2 of 3 relapses occurred in the spinal cord. Thus, local irradiation for PGNs was insufficient without treatment intensification. The introduction of intensified chemotherapy improved outcomes of both patients with hCG-GNs and NGGCTs. However, the contributions of either modality remained unclear.

Background: The importance of radiotherapy (RT) duration in medulloblastoma in the modern era of chemotherapy has not been well elucidated. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of RT treatment duration on overall survival (OS) in pediatric medulloblastoma and cenral nervous system neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs)., Methods: The National Cancer Database (NCDB) was queried to identify patients with newly diagnosed medulloblastoma and CNS PNETs diagnosed between 2004 and 2014. Patients were excluded if they had extraneural metastasis, did not receive standard craniospinal irradiation dose, had a nonstandard total dose outside of 54 or 55.8 Gy, did not receive adjuvant chemotherapy, or if the RT duration was outside of the expected range of 37 to 80 days. The Kaplan-Meier estimator was used to estimate the association between RT duration (≤45 days or >45 days) and OS. Multivariate Cox regression was used to assess other confounders of OS., Results: Six-hundred twenty-five patients met inclusion criteria, of which 181 were assigned to the "RT long" (>45 days) cohort (29.0%) and 444 (71.0%) to the "RT short" group (≤45 days). The five-year OS for the "RT short" compared with "RT long" cohort was 82.2% versus 70.9%, respectively (log-rank, P < 0.0037). For average risk patients, the five-year OS was 84.6% versus 86.4% for "RT short" and "RT long," respectively (log-rank, P = 0.40). However, for high-risk patients, five-year OS was 77.7% versus 51.0% (log-rank, P < 0.0001) in the "RT short" and "RT long" cohorts., Conclusion: For patients with high-risk medulloblastoma and CNS PNETs, RT duration >45 days was associated with inferior OS., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Background: In this study, we report the follow-up results of reduced dose of craniospinal radiotherapy (CSRT) followed by tandem high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) in patients with high-risk medulloblastoma (MB)., Methods: Newly diagnosed high-risk MB patients (metastatic disease, postoperative residual tumor >1.5 cm 2 , or large cell/anaplastic histology) over 3 years of age were enrolled in this study. Two cycles of pre-RT chemotherapy, radiotherapy (RT) including reduced-dose CSRT (23.4 or 30.6 Gy), four cycles of post-RT chemotherapy, and tandem HDCT were administered. NanoString and DNA sequencing were performed using archival tissues., Results: In all, 40 patients were enrolled, and molecular subgrouping was possible in 21 patients (2 wingless, 3 sonic hedgehog, 8 Group 3, and 8 group 4). All patients including two patients who experienced progression during the induction chemotherapy underwent HDCT. Relapse/progression occurred only in four patients (5-year cumulative incidence [CI] 10.4 ± 0.3%). However, six patients died from treatment-related mortality (TRM) (four acute TRMs and two late TRMs) resulting in 18.5 ± 0.5% of 5-year CI. Taken together, the 5-year event-free survival and overall survival were 71.1 ± 8.0% and 73.2 ± 7.9%, respectively. Late effects were evaluated in 25 patients and high-tone hearing loss, endocrine dysfunction, dyslipidemia, and growth retardation were common., Conclusions: The strategy using tandem HDCT following reduced-dose CSRT showed promising results in terms of low relapse/progression rate; however, the high TRM rate indicates that modification of HDCT regimen and careful selection of patients who can benefit from HDCT will be needed in the future study., (© 2020 The Authors. Cancer Medicine published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: Craniospinal irradiation (CSI) of childhood tumors with the RapidArc technique is a new method of treatment. Our objective was to compare the acute hematological toxicity pattern during 3D conformal radiotherapy with the application of the novel technique., Methods: Data from patients treated between 2007 and 2014 were collected, and seven patients were identified in both treatment groups. After establishing a general linear model, acute blood toxicity results were obtained using SPSS software. Furthermore, the exposure dose of the organs at risk was compared. Patients were followed for a minimum of 5 years, and progression-free survival and overall survival data were assessed., Results: After assessment of the laboratory parameters in the two groups, it may be concluded that no significant differences were detected in terms of the mean dose exposures of the normal tissues or the acute hematological side effects during the IMRT/ARC and 3D conformal treatments. Laboratory parameters decreased significantly compared to the baseline values during the treatment weeks. Nevertheless, no significant differences were detected between the two groups. No remarkable differences were confirmed between the two groups regarding the five-year progression-free survival or overall survival, and no signs of serious organ toxicity due to irradiation were observed during the follow-up period in either of the groups., Conclusion: The RapidArc technique can be used safely even in the treatment of childhood tumors, as the extent of the exposure dose in normal tissues and the amount of acute hematological side effects are not higher with this technique.

Introduction: Medulloblastoma is the most common malignant brain tumor in children, but accounts for only 1% of brain cancers in adults. For standard-risk pediatric medulloblastoma, current therapy includes craniospinal irradiation (CSI) at reduced doses (23.4 Gy) associated with chemotherapy. Whereas most same-stage adult patients are still given CSI at 36 Gy, with or without chemotherapy, we report here on our use of reduced-dose CSI associated with chemotherapy for older patients., Methods: We gathered non-metastatic patients over 18 years old (median age 28 years, range 18-48) with minimal or no residual disease after surgery, no negative histological subtypes, treated between 1996-2018 at the Centre Léon Bérard (Lyon) and the INT (Milano). A series of 54 children with similar tumors treated in Milano was used for comparison., Results: Forty-four adults were considered (median follow-up 101 months): 36 had 23.4 Gy of CSI, and 8 had 30.6 Gy, plus a boost to the posterior fossa/tumor bed; 43 had chemotherapy as all 54 children, who had a median 83-month follow-up. The PFS and OS were 82.2 ± 6.1% and 89 ± 5.2% at 5 years, and 78.5 ± 6.9% and 75.2 ± 7.8% at ten, not significantly different from those of the children. CSI doses higher than 23.4 Gy did not influence PFS. Female adult patients tended to have a better outcome than males., Conclusion: The results obtained in our combined series are comparable with, or even better than those obtained after high CSI doses, underscoring the need to reconsider this treatment in adults.

Purpose: To report clinical outcomes of salvage re-irradiation (re-RT) in recurrent/progressive ependymoma., Methods: Medical records of patients treated with curative-intent re-RT as multi-modality management for recurrent/progressive ependymoma were analyzed retrospectively. The linear-quadratic model was used to provide estimates of biologically effective dose (BED) of irradiation using an α/β value of 2 for late CNS toxicity for each course of irradiation and summated to derive cumulative BED without correcting for the assumed recovery., Results: A total of 55 patients (median age 10 years at index diagnosis) treated with curative-intent re-RT between 2010 and 2018 were included. Median time to first recurrence was 29 months with an inter-quartile range (IQR) of 16-64 months. Majority (n = 46, 84%) of patients underwent surgical re-excision of recurrent disease. Median interval from first course of irradiation (RT1) to second course (RT2) was 35 months (IQR = 26-66 months) with a median re-RT dose of 54 Gy in 30 fractions (range 40-60 Gy), resulting in median cumulative equivalent dose in 2 Gy fraction (EQD2) of 106.2 Gy (range 92.4-117.6 Gy). Volume of re-RT was based on location and pattern of relapse, comprising uni-focal (n = 49, 89%), multi-focal (n = 3, 5.5%), or craniospinal irradiation (CSI) in 3 (5.5%) patients respectively. Thirty-six (66%) patients received platinum-based salvage chemotherapy either before or after RT2. At a median follow up of 37 months (range 6-80 months), the Kaplan-Meier estimates of 3-year progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) for the entire study cohort were 40% and 51% respectively. Gross total resection at recurrence; early salvage re-RT (prior to chemotherapy, if any); and longer (> 2 years) disease-free interval (DFI) were associated with better survival outcomes. Salvage re-RT was generally well tolerated with only 3 (5.5%) patients developing symptomatic radiation necrosis necessitating corticosteroids., Conclusion: Extent of re-excision, sequence/timing of re-RT, and DFI impact upon outcomes in curative-intent, multi-modality salvage therapy for recurrent ependymoma.

Background: Radiotherapy boost to the entire posterior fossa (PF) is standard of care for high-risk (H-R) medulloblastoma patients; the utility of tumor bed (TB)-only boost is unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of PF versus TB boost volume on tumor control and survival in the H-R medulloblastoma population., Methods: Single-institution records for patients with H-R medulloblastoma were reviewed. The median craniospinal irradiation dose was 36 Gy (range, 23.4-45 Gy), and boost doses to either PF or TB were 54 to 55.8 Gy. PF (local) failures were scored as in-field, marginal (between 80% and 95% isodose lines), or distant. Kaplan-Meier methods and Cox proportional hazards were used to assess the impact of radiation boost technique on local control (LC) and survival endpoints., Results: Thirty-two patients with H-R medulloblastoma were treated between 1990 and 2015, with a median follow-up length of 5.12 years. Twenty-two patients received PF boost, and 10 received TB boost. Patient and disease characteristic were comparable between groups. A total of 11 PF failures occurred, including 3 isolated LFs (2 in the PF and 1 in the TB group). Most PF failures were in-field: three of four in the TB group and six of seven in the PF group; the remainder were marginal failures. TB boost was not associated with inferior LC (hazard ratio [HR] 0.86, log-rank P = 0.81) or overall survival (HR 1.40, P = 0.56) compared with PF boost., Conclusion: Reduced-volume radiotherapy boost to the TB does not appear to compromise LC or survival in patients with H-R medulloblastoma; it may reduce the risk of ototoxicity., (© 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Background: Understanding the global impact of medulloblastoma on health related quality of life (HRQL) is critical to characterizing the broad impact of this disease and realizing the benefits of modern treatments. We evaluated HRQL in an international cohort of pediatric medulloblastoma patients., Methods: Seventy-six patients were selected from 10 sites across North America, Europe, and Asia, who participated in the Medulloblastoma Advanced Genomics International Consortium (MAGIC). The Health Utilities Index (HUI) was administered to patients and/or parents at each site. Responses were used to determine overall HRQL and attributes (ie specific subdomains). The impact of various demographic and medical variables on HRQL was considered-including molecular subgroup., Results: The majority of patients reported having moderate or severe overall burden of morbidity for both the HUI2 and HUI3 (HUI2 = 60%; HUI3 = 72.1%) when proxy-assessed. Self-care in the HUI2 was rated as higher (ie better outcome) for patients from Western versus Eastern sites, P = .02. Patients with nonmetastatic status had higher values (ie better outcomes) for the HUI3 hearing, HUI3 pain, and HUI2 pain, all P < .05. Patients treated with a gross total resection also had better outcomes for the HUI3 hearing (P = .04). However, those who underwent a gross total resection reported having worse outcomes on the HUI3 vision (P = .02). No differences in HRQL were evident as a function of subgroup., Conclusions: By examining an international sample of survivors, we characterized the worldwide impact of medulloblastoma. This is a critical first step in developing global standards for evaluating long-term outcomes., (© 2019 The Authors. Cancer Medicine published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: Although chemotherapy is used routinely in pediatric medulloblastoma (MB) patients, its benefit for adult MB is unclear. We evaluated the survival impact of adjuvant chemotherapy in adult MB., Methods: Using the National Cancer Data Base, we identified patients aged 18 years and older who were diagnosed with MB in 2004-2012 and underwent surgical resection and adjuvant craniospinal irradiation (CSI). Patients were divided into those who received adjuvant CSI and chemotherapy (CRT) or CSI alone (RT). Predictors of CRT compared with RT were evaluated with univariable and multivariable logistic regression. Survival analysis was limited to patients receiving CSI doses between 23 and 36 Gy. Overall survival (OS) was evaluated using the Kaplan-Meier estimator, log-rank test, multivariable Cox proportional hazards modeling, and propensity score matching., Results: Of the 751 patients included, 520 (69.2%) received CRT, and 231 (30.8%) received RT. With median follow-up of 5.0 years, estimated 5-year OS was superior in patients receiving CRT versus RT (86.1% vs 71.6%, P < .0001). On multivariable analysis, after controlling for risk factors, CRT was associated with superior OS compared with RT (HR: 0.53; 95%CI: 0.32-0.88, P = .01). On planned subgroup analyses, the 5 year OS of patients receiving CRT versus RT was improved for M0 patients (P < .0001), for patients receiving 36 Gy CSI (P = .0007), and for M0 patients receiving 36 Gy CSI (P = .0008)., Conclusions: This national database analysis demonstrates that combined postoperative chemotherapy and radiotherapy are associated with superior survival for adult MB compared with radiotherapy alone, even for M0 patients who receive high-dose CSI., (© The Author(s) 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Neuro-Oncology. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com)