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The mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase, the terminal enzyme of the respiratory chain, contains heme and copper centers for electron transfer. The conserved COX2 subunit contains the CuA site, a binuclear copper center. The copper chaperones SCO1, SCO2, and COA6, are required for CuA center formation. Loss of function of these chaperones and the concomitant cytochrome c oxidase deficiency cause severe human disorders. Here we analyzed the molecular function of COA6 and the consequences of COA6 deficiency for mitochondria. Our analyses show that loss of COA6 causes combined complex I and complex IV deficiency and impacts membrane potential-driven protein transport across the inner membrane. We demonstrate that COA6 acts as a thiol-reductase to reduce disulfide bridges of critical cysteine residues in SCO1 and SCO2. Cysteines within the CX3CXNH domain of SCO2 mediate its interaction with COA6 but are dispensable for SCO2–SCO1 interaction. Our analyses define COA6 as thiol-reductase, which is essential for CuA biogenesis., Graphical abstract Image 1, Highlights • Loss of COA6 affects respiratory chain complexes IV and I. • Decreased membrane potential-driven protein import due to loss of COA6. • Cysteine residues in the CX3CXNH motif of SCO2 mediate COA6 interaction. • COA6 acts as thiol reductase for copper metallochaperones during CuA biogenesis.

Cu A is a binuclear copper site acting as electron entry port in terminal heme-copper oxidases. In the oxidized form, Cu A is a mixed valence pair whose electronic structure can be described using a potential energy surface with two minima, σ u ∗ and π u , that are variably populated at room temperature. We report that mutations in the first and second coordination spheres of the binuclear metallocofactor can be combined in an additive manner to tune the energy gap and, thus, the relative populations of the two lowest-lying states. A series of designed mutants span σ u ∗/π u energy gaps ranging from 900 to 13 cm -1 . The smallest gap corresponds to a variant with an effectively degenerate ground state. All engineered sites preserve the mixed-valence character of this metal center and the electron transfer functionality. An increase of the Cu-Cu distance less than 0.06 Å modifies the σ u /π u energy gap by almost 2 orders of magnitude, with longer distances eliciting a larger population of the π u state. This scenario offers a stark contrast to synthetic systems, as model compounds require a lengthening of 0.5 Å in the Cu-Cu distance to stabilize the π u state. These findings show that the tight control of the protein environment allows drastic perturbations in the electronic structure of Cu A sites with minor geometric changes. Fil: Leguto, Alcides José. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Smith, Meghan A.. Cornell University; Estados Unidos Fil: Morgada, Marcos Nicolás. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Zitare, Ulises Alejandro. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Ciudad Universitaria. Instituto de Química, Física de los Materiales, Medioambiente y Energía. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Química, Física de los Materiales, Medioambiente y Energía; Argentina Fil: Murgida, Daniel Horacio. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Ciudad Universitaria. Instituto de Química, Física de los Materiales, Medioambiente y Energía. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Química, Física de los Materiales, Medioambiente y Energía; Argentina Fil: Lancaster, Kyle M.. Cornell University; Estados Unidos Fil: Vila, Alejandro Jose. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina

The biogenesis of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase is a complex process involving the stepwise assembly of its multiple subunits encoded by two genetic systems. Moreover, several chaperones are required to recruit and insert the redox-active metal centers into subunits I and II, two a-type hemes and a total of three copper ions, two of which form the CuA center located in a hydrophilic domain of subunit II. The copper-binding Sco protein(s) have been implicated with the metallation of this site in various model organisms. Here we analyze the role of the two Sco homologues termed ScoA and ScoB, along with two other copper chaperones, on the biogenesis of the cytochrome c oxidase in the bacterium Paracoccus denitrificans by deleting each of the four genes individually or pairwise, followed by assessing the functionality of the assembled oxidase both in intact membranes and in the purified enzyme complex. Copper starvation leads to a drastic decrease of oxidase activity in membranes from strains involving the scoB deletion. This loss is shown to be of dual origin, (i) a severe drop in steady-state oxidase levels in membranes, and (ii) a diminished enzymatic activity of the remaining oxidase complex, traced back to a lower copper content, specifically in the CuA site of the enzyme. Neither of the other proteins addressed here, ScoA or the two PCu proteins, exhibit a direct effect on the metallation of the CuA site in P. denitrificans, but are discussed as potential interaction partners of ScoB.

En esta tesis doctoral se abordó el estudio de los parámetros que regulan las reacciones de transferencia electrónica (TE) en sistemas proteicos dentro del marco teórico desarrollado por Marcus. Para ello se emplearon métodos espectroscópicos, electroquímicos, espectroelectroquímicos y computacionales. En particular, se investigaron dos componentes de la cadena de transporte respiratorio: el citocromo c (Cyt), un transportador soluble de electrones y el centro de CuA, el aceptor primario de la citocromo c oxidasa. En primer lugar, se estudió el rol de la dinámica proteica del Cyt y su modulación por campos eléctricos de relevancia biológica. Se verificó que dicha dinámica es crucial en la regulación de las reacciones de TE que tienen lugar en la cadena de transporte de electrones a través de la modulación del acoplamiento electrónico entre donor y aceptor. Por otro lado, se encontró evidencia de que el campo eléctrico regularía la alternancia entre dos conformaciones del Cyt que difieren principalmente en la magnitud de la energía de reorganización. Finalmente, se constató el rol fundamental de las fluctuaciones térmicas y la dinámica proteica para las reacciones de TE en centros de CuA. Dichos centros podrían alternar entre dos estados electrónicos distintos, en los cuales el balance entre la energía de reorganización y el acoplamiento electrónico permitiría conferir direccionalidad a las reacción de TE a pesar de presentar un ΔG≈0. El conjunto de los resultados obtenidos sugiere que los procesos de TE en sistemas biológicos se encuentran finamente regulados, y en particular nos permiten postular un mecanismo de retroalimentación negativa cuyo actor principal es el campo eléctrico interfacial. This Ph.D. thesis is dedicated to disentangling the parameters that regulate protein electron transfer (ET) reactions, within the theoretical framework developed by Marcus. To that end, spectroscopic, electrochemical, spectroelectrochemical and computational methods were employed. The proteins investigated are two components of the respiratory electron transport chain: cytochrome c (Cyt), a soluble electron shuttle, and the CuA center, the primary electron acceptor of cytochrome c oxidase. Part of the thesis deals with the role of protein dynamics and their modulation by biologically relevant electric fields for the specific case of Cyt. Such dynamics are proposed to be crucial in the regulation of the ET reactions that take place at the electron transport chain by modulating the electronic coupling between donor and acceptor. Moreover, we found evidence of the electric field acting as a switch between two different Cyt conformations that exhibit different reorganization energies. Finally, we verified that thermal fluctuations and protein dynamics play a fundamental role in the ET reaction of CuA centers. These centers could switch between two different electronic ground states in which the interplay between reorganization energy and electronic coupling may confer directionality to the ET reactions in spite of occurring with ΔG≈0. Altogether, these results suggest that ET process in biological systems are finely tuned, and allow us to postulate a mechanism of negative feedback whose main actor is the interfacial electric field. Fil: Alvarez Paggi, Damián Jorge. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales; Argentina.

Cytochrome c is the specific and efficient electron transfer mediator between the two last redox complexes of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. Its interaction with both partner proteins, namely cytochrome c1 (of complex III) and the hydrophilic CuA domain (of subunit II of oxidase), is transient, and known to be guided mainly by electrostatic interactions, with a set of acidic residues on the presumed docking site on the CuA domain surface and a complementary region of opposite charges exposed on cytochrome c. Information from recent structure determinations of oxidases from both mitochondria and bacteria, site-directed mutagenesis approaches, kinetic data obtained from the analysis of isolated soluble modules of interacting redox partners, and computational approaches have yielded new insights into the docking and electron transfer mechanisms. Here, we summarize and discuss recent results obtained from bacterial cytochrome c oxidases from both Paracoccus denitrificans, in which the primary electrostatic encounter most closely matches the mitochondrial situation, and the Thermus thermophilus ba3 oxidase in which docking and electron transfer is predominantly based on hydrophobic interactions.