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Additional file 2. Nucleotide sequences from the genetic markers analyzed for the molecular investigations of the putative induced malaria case, Florence 1, and the imported malaria case, Florence 2.

Additional file 1. Nucleotide sequences from the genetic markers analyzed for the molecular investigations of the putative induced malaria case, Trento 1, and the imported malaria cases, Trento 2-5.

Coinfection of blood-borne hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses (HBV and HCV, respectively) in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-positive individuals frequently occurs in inmate population and peculiar viral strains and patterns of virological markers may be observed. Plasma from 69 HIV-1-positive inmates was obtained from 7 clinical centers connected with correctional centers in different towns in Italy. HIV, HBV, and HCV markers were tested by commercial assays. Virus genotyping was carried out by sequencing the protease and reverse transcriptase-encoding region (PR-RT region) for HIV and a region encompassing the NS5B gene for HCV and subsequent phylogenetic analysis. Twelve over 14 HIV-subtyped inmates were infected with HIV-1 subtype B strains. The 2 non-B strains belonged to subtype G and CRF02_AG, in an Italian and a Gambian patient, respectively. Variants carrying the K103N and Y181C resistance mutations to non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) were found in 2 out of 9 patients naive for combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) (22.2%). Most HIV-positive patients (92.8%) showed evidence of past or present HBV and/or HCV infection. Prevalence of HBV and HCV was 81.2% for both viruses, whereas prevalence of HBV/HCV coinfection was 69.6%. A significantly higher presence of HCV infection was found in Italians [odds ratio (OR) 11.0; interval 1.7–80.9] and in drug users (OR 27.8; interval 4.9–186.0). HCV subtypes were determined in 42 HCV or HBV/HCV-coinfected individuals. HCV subtypes 1a, 3a, 4d, and 1b were found in 42.9%, 40.5%, 14.3%, and 2.4% of inmates, respectively. Low titers of HBV DNA in HBV DNA positive subjects precluded HBV subtyping. The high prevalence of HBV and HCV coinfections in HIV-infected inmates, as well as the heterogeneity of HIV and HCV subtypes suggest the need to adopt systematic controls in prisons to monitor both the burden and the genetic forms of blood-borne viral infections, in order to apply targeted therapeutic interventions.

Il coordinamento dell’aiuto pubblico allo sviluppo, evocato negli ultimi anni da più parti come la soluzione alla deludente efficacia degli aiuti è in realtà un argomento che nasce quasi contemporaneamente alle prime organizzazioni internazionali dedicate allo sviluppo . La funzione ambivalente delle Nazioni Unite, agente di mediazione diplomatica da un lato (mediazione tra stati e tra gruppi di potere all’interno dello stesso stato), e agente di sviluppo dall’altro, garantisce all’organizzazione un ruolo preminente nel coordinamento degli aiuti nei contesti di guerra e di post-conflitto. E’ questa stessa ambivalenza che impone all’organizzazione un rapporto ufficiale con i territori sottosviluppati, incardinato nella relazione con i governi centrali degli stati. La critica radicale all’aiuto pubblico allo sviluppo individua tutte le distorsioni politiche ed economiche legate all’afflusso dei fondi, sottolineandone le aggravanti possibili laddove esista una discrasia tra gli obiettivi di sviluppo delle Nazioni Unite e quelli dell’élite che occupa le posizioni apicali dello stato. Questa ricerca attraverso un’analisi storica del contesto, mette in luce l’interazione tra il sistema degli aiuti e il sistema-paese in Tajikistan dall’ingresso delle organizzazioni ai giorni nostri. L’analisi dimostra infine che la struttura politico-economica radicata sul territorio, pur conservando i tratti di uno “stato predatorio” (tratti non alleviati bensì aggravati dalle distorsioni legate all’afflusso dei fondi per lo sviluppo), sfugge in realtà alla definizione stessa di “Stato”. Questo dato rivela una debolezza insita nell’approccio metodologico del sistema degli aiuti che si fonda proprio sull’archetipo dello “Stato”., The Official Development Assistance (ODA) coordination has been recently launched as a genuine mean to increase aid effectiveness. Actually, the “aid coordination” paradigm was born almost contemporaneously to the first international organizations dedicated to “development”. The ambivalent function of the United Nation that acts both as an agent of diplomatic mediation (among states and among different lobbies within the borders of the same state), and as a development agent, guarantees to United Nations a preeminent role in the field of aid coordination in conflict and post-conflict contexts. It’s this real ambivalence that compels the United Nations to deal with development countries through official relations with the central governments. The radical critique to development aid shows different political and economic distortions related to the incidence of foreign funds. At the same time, it underlines that wherever the goals of the official governments diverge from the development goals of the aid community these distortions might be even more burdensome for the country. This research, through an historical analysis, draws attention on the interaction among the development industry and the country-system in Tajikistan from the arrival of the international organizations to our days. The analysis demonstrates that the political and economic structure of the country, while maintaining the features of a “predatory state” (features which are not alleviated but worsened by the distortions brought about by the aid industry), simply do not comply with the definition of a “State”. This result highlights an innate weakness of the aid industry methodological approach that is in fact, fully based on the political archetype of the “State”.

Background: The data-collection form used for Italy's recently established national HIV surveillance system does not include sufficient information to thoroughly describe the dynamics of the epidemic. In addition, comparisons with data from other European countries are difficult. To address this issue, we have developed a more detailed form based on forms used in other European countries.Methods: Data-collection forms used in other countries were evaluated, and the information collected was categorised by topic. Based on this evaluation, a form was developed for use in Italy.Results: The forms used in other countries are more detailed than the Italian form, and we propose adding the following information to the Italian form: i) the year of entry in Italy for non-nationals; ii) testing pattern (i.e., the number of tests in the previous two years and during lifetime); iii) whether or not infection was recent, based on the antibody avidity index, and which test and cut-off were used; iv) whether or not testing was performed in the acute phase of infection, based on symptoms; and v) a checklist of reasons for undergoing testing. We also added a “Comments” section for information not recorded elsewhere on theform.Discussion: The more detailed form will allow for a more thorough description of the characteristics of newly infected persons and of the dynamics of the epidemic in Italy, which is fundamental for prevention and control initiatives. It will also allow for comparisons to be made against data from other European countries, revealing important similarities and differences.

Simple Summary Hepatitis E is now recognized as an emerging zoonotic disease in Europe caused by an RNA virus (HEV) and foodborne is the main route of transmission. Human cases have been linked to the consumption of contaminated pig liver sausages, raw venison, or undercooked wild boar meat. The zoonotic genotype HEV-3 is widespread in pigs at farm level but little information is available on the occurrence of HEV-positive pigs at the slaughterhouse. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of HEV-positive pigs during slaughtering, to understand which biological samples (feces and organs) were more frequently HEV positive. Our results showed that pigs positive for HEV can be slaughtered and that the percentage of positive animals depends on the age of animals. The other main result is the presence of the virus in the plasma of animals, which may contribute to the contamination of meat (muscle). Nevertheless, muscles are rarely contaminated by HEV-RNA compared to liver, which is the organ of replication. Abstract In Europe, foodborne transmission has been clearly associated to sporadic cases and small clusters of hepatitis E in humans linked to the consumption of contaminated pig liver sausages, raw venison, or undercooked wild boar meat. In Europe, zoonotic HEV-genotype 3 strains are widespread in pig farms but little information is available on the prevalence of HEV positive pigs at slaughterhouse. In the present study, the prevalence of HEV-RNA positive pigs was assessed on 585 animals from 4 abattoirs located across Italy. Twenty-one pigs (3.6%) tested positive for HEV in either feces or liver by real-time RT-PCR. In these 21 pigs, eight diaphragm muscles resulted positive for HEV-RNA. Among animals collected in one abattoir, 4 out of 91 plasma tested positive for HEV-RNA. ELISA tests for the detection of total antibodies against HEV showed a high seroprevalence (76.8%), confirming the frequent exposure of pigs to the virus. The phylogenetic analyses conducted on sequences of both ORF1 and ORF2 fragments, shows the circulation of HEV-3c and of a novel unclassified subtype. This study provides information on HEV occurrence in pigs at the slaughterhouse, confirming that muscles are rarely contaminated by HEV-RNA compared to liver, which is the most frequently positive for HEV.