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This paper presents a systematic literature review aimed at consolidating knowledge on the application of eye-tracking technology in the diagnosis of dyslexia among school-aged children (6-12 years). Through a meticulous search and selection process, 20 studies conducted over the last 10 years were identified and analyzed to evaluate the effectiveness of this technology. The findings highlight the varied methodologies, participant demographics, and outcomes of these studies, underscoring the potential of eye tracking as a non-invasive, objective tool in the early detection of and intervention for dyslexia. Despite facing limitations such as heterogeneity in study designs and the need for standardized protocols, this review illuminates the significant promise of eye-tracking technology in enhancing dyslexia diagnosis. It identifies gaps in current research, proposes avenues for future investigation, and offers evidence-based recommendations for practitioners. This endeavor not only enriches the present understanding of dyslexia diagnosis, but also establishes a foundation to ultimately improve educational outcomes for dyslexic learners.

Mobile health (mHealth) screening tools for autism are gaining in prevalence, and have benefits such as video content and direct resources linkage. However, it is unclear whether such tools will ameliorate autism inequities or will help only those already advantaged in autism care. To investigate this issue, we conducted semi-structured qualitative interviews with 18 primary care and Early Intervention/Early Childhood Special Education providers in six US states. Providers were given hypothetical scenarios in which a family presents to care with results from one of 9 mHealth autism screening tools. Providers discussed their clinical approach and assessed the tool's fit with their patient/client population. Each transcript was audio-recorded, transcribed, and coded; a phenomenological approach was used to develop key themes. 4 themes and 18 subthemes emerged. These included "Clinical and business factors" (e.g. scope of practice concerns and clinical efficiency), "Validity and trustworthiness" (e.g. familiarity, data privacy/security), "Family interaction quality" (e.g. supporting family advocacy, provision of information, affecting family anxiety, and emotional support), and "Accessibility" (e.g. English proficiency/language issues, cultural inclusivity, and literacy/educational level). Providers suggested modifications to enhance equity, such as portraying diverse families, reducing the reading level of text, and making tools shorter to better fit clinical context.

Language in autism is heterogeneous, with a significant proportion of individuals having structural language difficulties and inclusion of language impairment as a specifier under "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (5th ed.) criteria for autism. This systematic review asked: What are the reporting patterns of variables pertaining to structural language in autism prior to and after publication of the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (5th ed.)? What norm-referenced assessments does research use to characterize the language abilities of autistic individuals with respect to language impairment? This preregistered review (PROSPERO: CRD42021260394) followed Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Searches took place in September 2022 and included Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts, PsycINFO, PubMed, and the Directory of Open Access Journals. Search terms included three essential concepts: autism, language, and age. Two coders independently screened and evaluated articles. Searches yielded 57 qualifying studies, with mostly consistent reporting practices prior to and after the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (5th ed.). Studies varied in how they defined language groups and in what norm-referenced measures they used. Interpreting research on structural language in autism requires attention to diagnostic and grouping criteria. Although inconsistency in reporting in original studies limited this review, better understanding the available information on structural language in autistic individuals aged 3-21 years may support identification of language needs.

Screening for autism in childhood has been advocated as a part of standard care. Challenges exist with screening implementation and performance of screening tools in clinical practice. This study aimed to examine the validity and feasibility of using the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revised with Follow-Up (M-CHAT-R/F) for screening of autism in Singapore. Caregivers completed the M-CHAT-R/F as a part of the routine 18-month well-child visit in seven primary care clinics. Screening and follow-up interviews were administered by trained nursing staff. Children screened positive and a subset of those screened negative underwent diagnostic assessments for autism, which included an Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition. Participants were 5336 multiethnic children (mean age 18.6 ± 0.9 months, 51.3% male gender). In total, 113 (2.1%) were screened positive, of which 54 (1.0%) were classified to have autism after their diagnostic assessment. Sensitivity of the M-CHAT-R/F was 88.6%, specificity 71.4%, and positive predictive value 90.7% for an autism diagnosis. The majority of respondents rated the screening process as feasible within the clinic setting. The M-CHAT-R/F had acceptable psychometric properties and high feasibility when used in primary care settings in Singapore. Recommendations for implementation of systematic screening and future research are presented.

Studies have found early detection of autism is protective for an individual and their family. Fewer Pacific children are diagnosed with autism compared with non-Pacific children, and those who have significantly higher needs, suggesting an undercount of those diagnosed. The purpose of this study was to explore any association between parental education and autism in Pacific children living in Aotearoa, New Zealand. This was a national cross-sectional study using data from New Zealand's Integrated Data Infrastructure, including Pacific and non-Maori non-Pacific children in the 2013 Census. A novel method was employed to capture autism, while years of parents' education was estimated from their highest attained qualification level. Apposite regression models were used to analyse the relationship between parental education and autism. We found that autism was identified in 1.1% of Pacific children compared with 1.6% of non-Maori, non-Pacific children. A year of education among parents of Pacific children was associated with increased identification of autism (odds ratio = 1.10; 95% confidence interval = 1.06-1.15). The findings show education plays a positive role in receiving a diagnosis for Pacific autistic children but suggest a systemic failure to support Pacific parents to navigate existing health systems for themselves or their children.

Compared to males, females are at a much greater likelihood of receiving a later diagnosis of autism, which impacts their opportunity to receive early support. To assist with early identification, this systematic literature review aimed to ascertain whether females differ from males in the early childhood signs of autism. The small number of heterogeneous studies made it difficult to draw conclusions, although it appears that females and males under 6 years of age are more similar than different in terms of their expression of autistic behaviours. Given the discrepant sex/gender ratio in autism, these findings highlight the importance of exploring whether there are different and/or specific, not yet identified, early signs of autism in females and males.

Currently, no culturally and linguistically adapted autism screening tools are available in South Africa. The aim was to determine the reliability and concurrent validity of the adapted English and Northern Sotho-translated Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers--Revised with Follow-up (M-CHAT-R/F). Reliability was confirmed with near-perfect agreement (p < 0.001) between the checklists in a sample of 158 Northern Sotho/English bilingual mothers of children with a low risk for autism. Concurrent validity between the Northern Sotho M-CHAT-R/F and the communication and socialization sub-domains of the Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scales--3rd Edition was established with significant association at the 5% level. A third (33.5%) of the children showed a developmental delay. The checklists are valid and reliable, and may improve early identification that will render better long-term outcomes for children with autism in South Africa. Autism screening should be combined with developmental assessment. The study contributes to an emerging body of research on the development of contextually appropriate screening measures.

Background: The Pediatric Eating Assessment Tool (PEDI-EAT-10) is a reliable and valid tool for rapid identification of dysphagia in patients aged 18 months to 18 years. Aims: To translate and adapt the PEDI-EAT-10 into the Italian language and evaluate its validity and reliability. Methods & Procedures: The translation and cross-cultural adaptation of the tool consisted of five stages: initial translation, synthesis of the translations, back translation, expert committee evaluation and test of the prefinal version. The internal consistency of the translated tool was analysed in a clinical group composed of 200 patients with special healthcare needs aged between 18 months and 18 years. They were consecutively enrolled at the Rare Disease Unit, Paediatrics Department, Fondazione Policlinico Agostino Gemelli-IRCCS, Rome. For test-retest reliability, 50 caregivers filled in the PEDI-EAT-10 questionnaire for a second time after a 2-week period. Construct validity was established by comparing data obtained from patients with data from healthy participants (n = 200). The study was approved by the local ethics committee. Outcomes & Results: Psychometric data obtained from patients (104 M; mean age = 8.08 ± 4.85 years; median age = 7 years) showed satisfactory internal consistency (Cronbach's a = 0.89) and test-retest reliability (Pearson r = 0.99; Spearman r = 0.96). A total of 30% of children were classified as having a high risk of penetration/aspiration. The Italian PEDI-EAT-10 mean total score of the clinical group was significantly different from that resulting from healthy participants. Conclusions & Implications: The PEDI-EAT-10 was successfully translated into Italian, validated and found to be a reliable one-page rapid screening tool to identify dysphagia in children and adolescents with special needs.

This study aims to investigate the validation of the Rapid Interactive Screening Test for Autism in Toddlers (RITA-T) in Turkish toddlers between 18 and 36 months of age. Children aged 18-36 months were referred to the department of child psychiatry for concerns of autism spectrum disorder, language disorder, developmental delay, and typically developing children were enrolled. A total of 81 toddlers participating in the study received clinical interviews according to the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (5th ed.) and the Childhood Autism Rating Scale. They received the translated RIT-T from reliably trained and blinded providers. Parents completed the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers form. A cut-off score was calculated based on the sensitivity, specificity, positive, and negative predictive values of the RITA-T total score that best differentiates autism spectrum disorder diagnosis. For all participants, the RITA-T total score correlated with the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (r = 0.715) and the Childhood Autism Rating Scale total score (r = 0.825). Using a cut-off score of [greater than or equal to]17, the RITA-T had a sensitivity of 0.90 and a specificity of 0.927 for identifying autism spectrum disorder risk. The area under the curve was 0.977. Our findings demonstrate that the RITA-T is effective in Turkish toddlers for the early identification of autism spectrum disorder, early intervention settings, and allowing access to treatment.

Response to intervention (RTI) is a method for providing academic support to students and for identifying specific learning disabilities (SLDs). Using interrupted time series and hazard models, we examined if statewide RTI adoption in the U.S. state of Tennessee was associated with changes in rates of SLD and first-time SLD identification in elementary schools, and if these associations varied across student groups. Response to intervention was associated with an initial decline in the percentage of students with SLD in the state that continued over time, with larger decreases for students who were Black or economically disadvantaged. Response to intervention was associated with a 61% average decrease in the odds of first-time SLD identification by third grade (about a 0.006 change in the predicted probability), with greater declines for students who were Black or economically disadvantaged. We discuss these results in the context of disproportionality in special education and the need for research examining whether declines in SLD were due to improved academic outcomes, as opposed to delays in identification.

Early childhood home visiting programs are well positioned to improve equity and reduce health disparities for families headed by caregivers with intellectual disabilities and other learning differences. Early identification of learning differences through screening may help home visiting staff tailor services and thus improve family engagement and outcomes. Using a mixed methods design, this study assessed potential determinants and outcomes related to implementation of a screening tool for learning differences adapted for the home visiting context. Participants were six home visiting staff and nine caregivers from multiple home visiting programs in one state. Staff completed surveys at enrollment and each time they conducted a screen with a caregiver. Staff also completed semi-structured interviews after conducting screens with at least two caregivers. Caregivers completed semi-structured interviews after taking part in a screen. At study enrollment, staff felt it was important to know if caregivers had learning differences, yet some believed caregivers would not like being asked about them. Survey and interview data aligned with theoretical determinants of implementation success, including staff competencies related to screening (e.g., knowledge, skills), perceived fit of screening with staff role and organizational context, and beliefs that the screening would improve engagement of caregivers and service delivery. Staff perceived the tool to be acceptable, feasible, and useful, although some acknowledged that caregivers might feel uncomfortable if the tool was not used carefully. Overall, caregivers found the tool to be acceptable and most believed it was helpful for the home visitor to have information about their learning experiences and needs. Findings lend initial support for the use of an adapted screening tool to identify potential learning differences.

Background: Despite extensive research on the specific learning disorder (developmental dyslexia) -- SLD (DD), many fallacies still cause confusion amongst professionals worldwide. These myths involve the characteristics, diagnoses and treatment of SLD (DD) and should be eradicated. Aim: The authors aimed to determine the knowledge, needs and perspectives of South African professionals working with children with SLD (DD). Setting: A mixed-methods research design was implemented. Methods: A survey study was carried out and a sample of 108 respondents was obtained. The respondents include speech-language therapists (SLTs), occupational therapists (OTs) and psychologists. Results: Speech-language therapists and psychologists displayed better knowledge about the facts of SLD (DD), compared to OTs. Their knowledge levels were, however, not significantly affected by existing misconceptions surrounding the condition. The fallacy that SLD (DD) is caused by a visual impairment is still believed. An investigation into the professionals' perspectives regarding the identification of SLD (DD) suggested that South African psychologists were the most confident of their ability to identify characteristics. Nonetheless, all professionals reported not being convinced of their ability to provide a differential diagnosis of the disorder. Statements regarding management highlighted the uncertainties about the importance of addressing phonological awareness skills in treatment. Additional training needs were also identified as SLTs, OTs and psychologists generally feel unprepared to assess and treat SLD (DD). Conclusion: The differences identified amongst professional groups were related to the knowledge of the facts and characteristics of SLD (DD) and the ability to identify and manage the condition. Additional training needs should be addressed. Contribution: The authors would like to acknowledge and thank the NRF for partially funding the publication of this article.

This study aimed to identify the reality of diagnosing learning disabilities among students with hearing impairments from the point of view of their teachers. The descriptive survey method was used. The study sample included (152) male and female teachers from deaf schools in Saudi Arabia. The results of the study showed that the level of reality of diagnosing learning disabilities among students with hearing impairments from their teachers' point of view was moderate, and no statistically significant differences were attributable to the gender variable. Statistically, significant differences were attributed to the occupation variable in favor of the teacher of deaf students, the differences in the diagnostic methods used in favor of the specialist diagnosing deaf and hard-of-hearing students, and the differences in the diagnostic scales used were in favor of the teacher of deaf students. and found no differences due to years of experience. There were statistically significant differences in the reality of diagnosing learning disabilities among students with hearing impairment due to the educational qualification in favor of a Bachelor's in Special Education, but there were no differences attributable to the educational qualification variable. and statistically significant differences in the reality of diagnosing learning disabilities among students with hearing impairments attributable to the type of institution to which the teacher belongs, in favor of teachers affiliated with a public school or institute, and no differences in (the reality of diagnosing learning disabilities among deaf and hard-of-hearing students, and the diagnostic measures used) due to the type of institution to which he belongs. The study recommends training teachers to use multiple scales for diagnosing learning disabilities in categories of hearing impairment and conducting studies related to diagnosing deaf people with learning disabilities.

Measurement of readability is an important tool for assessing reading disorders such as dyslexia. Among the screening procedures for dyslexia is the reading fluency test, which is defined as the ability to read with speed, accuracy and proper expression. The reading fluency test often consists of a sequence of unrelated written texts ranging from simple short sentences to more difficult and longer paragraphs. In psychological testing instruments, subjective text assessment is often replaced by objective readability formulas, e.g., the Automated Readability Index. Readability formulas extract multiple features from a given text and output a score indicating the difficulty of the text. The aim of the present study is to build a machine learning model that discriminates between pupils identified with dyslexia and a control group without dyslexia based on fluency in oral reading of texts assessed with a readability application developed within the project For the Quality of Slovenian Textbooks. We focus on differentiation between both groups of pupils by analysing data obtained from transcriptions of audio recordings of oral reading. The empirical study was conducted with 27 pupils aged 8 and 9 with officially diagnosed dyslexia and a control group without identified dyslexia.

Teachers play a crucial role in the diagnostic process of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in students: They are often the first to identify ADHD-related behaviors in children and to signal them to parents. Research has demonstrated that the recognition and labeling of certain behaviors as evidential for ADHD by teachers vary with respect to student characteristics. This study examines if and how the association between teacher perception of students' ADHD-related behaviors and teacher suspicion of ADHD in students is moderated by teacher perception of students' cognitive capacities. Multilevel analysis was carried out on data collected in 2017 and 2018 from 939 students and 108 teachers in 15 Flemish (Belgium) and 16 Québec (Canada) schools in the context of a collaborative research project on ADHD-prevalence and identification. Results show that, when teachers perceive ADHD-related behaviors in students, they more readily suspect ADHD when students are cognitively stronger. This study suggests that teachers are more inclined to free cognitively stronger students from the blame of ADHD-related behaviors by administering them an ADHD-label.

Objective: This study utilized the World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule version 2 (WHODAS 2.0) to identify vulnerable students and explore the impact of mental and developmental disorders on disability. Participants: A total of 156 undergraduates who visited support service offices at large-scale universities in Japan between April 2018 and March 2020 were included. Methods: The 36-item WHODAS 2.0 was administered, and data were gathered regarding mental and developmental disabilities. Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis tests were conducted. Results: Parents/guardians typically initiated consultation with student support services. Students whose parents had initiated consultation did not have higher scores in any WHODAS domain except "Life Activities." In every WHODAS domain except "Cognition," the "Mental Disorder" group scored significantly higher than the "No Disorder" group. The addition of "Developmental Disorders" significantly increased WHODAS scores, except in "Mobility." Conclusions: The WHODAS is a useful tool for identifying vulnerable students.

This study examined the effectiveness of the "Thrive by Three" intervention for 1- to 3-year-old's language development. Data from 78 childcare centres, 187 toddler classrooms, and 1561 children (91.4% native Norwegian) were included. Results revealed that children in the intervention group had slightly steeper language development than those in the control group, but the difference was not statistically significant. Since previous studies find language stimulation in childcare to differ based on gender, we also examined if the Thrive by Three intervention affected boys and girls differently. We found that effects of the intervention were only present for girls' language development. Girls in the intervention group had an increase of 17 more words from baseline to post-intervention than those in the control group. There was no statistical difference in change of boys' language development between the intervention and control group. Results are discussed in light of theories and literature that may explain our findings.

Even with increased efforts to close the academic gap by providing appropriate services to students with disabilities, there is still a gap in outcomes that requires identification of possible contributing factors. One often hypothesized mechanism for these continued disparities is the stigma associated with disability categorization or "labeling bias." However, there is paucity of scholarship that addresses effective ways to reduce labeling bias within the classroom. This study draws from the dual-process model to experimentally investigate if a short video clip moves participants from System 1 implicit thinking to System 2 deliberate thinking resulting in reduced biases in expectations of behavior. This study utilized an experimental, between-subjects, vignette factorial design to measure pre-service educator perceptions of inappropriate behaviors between students with and without an identified disability label. The results of analysis of covariance and "post hoc" testing indicate significant interaction effects between the label of the student and the video clip. Specifically, biased responses by disability label were dependent on whether the participant was assigned to the video clip condition. Participants in the video condition indicated an expectation of reduced behaviors for the positively associated label condition and increased behaviors for the negatively associated label condition. Practical implications and limitations are discussed.

Graphomotor and handwriting disabilities (GD and HD, respectively) could significantly reduce children's quality of life. Effective remediation depends on proper diagnosis; however, current approaches to diagnosis and assessment of GD and HD have several limitations and knowledge gaps, e.g. they are subjective, they do not facilitate identification of specific manifestations, etc. The aim of this work is to introduce a new scale (GHDRS--Graphomotor and Handwriting Disabilities Rating Scale) that will enable experts to perform objective and complex computer-aided diagnosis and assessment of GD and HD. The scale supports quantification of 17 manifestations associated with the process/product of drawing/handwriting. The whole methodology of GHDRS design is made maximally transparent so that it could be adapted for other languages.

Background: Screening is the first important step in the diagnostic process. There is strong evidence that early diagnosis and management of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can lead to a better prognosis. The purpose of this study was to develop an Arabic version of the Chinese Checklist for Autism in Toddlers-23 (CHAT-23) to distinguish children with ASD in the Egyptian community. Methods: The Arabic CHAT-23 checklist was applied to 100 Egyptian children with mental age 18-24 months including 30 autistic and 70 typically-developing children. Results and conclusion: Arabic CHAT-23 checklist is a valid and reliable tool for early identification of ASD in Egyptian children with high sensitivity (93.3%) and specificity (97%). Children failing any 15 of all 23 questions of the parental questionnaire should be observed with observational items. Failing any 3 of the 4 observational items would suggest ASD.

We studied the associations between childhood-identified learning disabilities and adult-age mental health and whether adult-age reading and math skills, coping styles, or resilience influenced the associations. The participants were 159 Finnish adults (60.4% males). Of them, 48 (30%) had a reading disability (RD), 22 (14%) had a math disability (MD), 21 (13%) had RD + MD identified in childhood, and 68 (43%) were population-based controls, matched based on gender, age, and place of residence. At ages 20-40 (M[subscript age] = 29), they reported their mental health, coping styles, and resilience, and their reading and math skills were assessed. The hierarchical regression analyses, predicting mental health with RD, MD, and their interaction while controlling for gender and age, indicated that childhood MD predicted the occurrence of more mental health problems in adulthood, but this was not observed in the case of RD. The RDxMD positive interaction effect reflected better mental health in both the RD and the RD + MD groups than in the MD group. Controlling for adult-age reading and math skills had no effect on the association between MD and mental health outcomes while controlling for resilience and coping styles diminished the impact of MD. Strong resilience without the use of an emotion-oriented coping may thus alleviate the association between MD and mental health. As childhood MD can have long-term associations with mental health problems, these issues need to be addressed in school, at work, and in healthcare. Based on our findings, strengthening effective coping and resilience may be one avenue of support.

Federal law defines eligibility for English learner (EL) classification differently for Indigenous students compared with non-Indigenous students. To be EL-eligible, non-Indigenous students are required to have a non-English primary language. Indigenous students, by contrast, can be English-dominant or English monolingual. A critical question, therefore, is how EL classification impacts Indigenous students' educational outcomes. This study explores this question for Alaska Native students, drawing on data from five Alaska school districts. Using a regression discontinuity design, we find preliminary evidence that among students who score near the EL classification threshold in kindergarten, EL classification has a large negative impact on Alaska Native students' academic outcomes in the third and fourth grades. Negative impacts are not found for non-Alaska Native students.

Objective: University and college counseling centers (UCCCs) are a front-line support for the mental health needs of autistic students, though little is known about clinician attitudes, comfort level, and training in autism. Participants: 89 UCCC clinicians were recruited via email listservs. Methods: The authors developed a survey which assessed attitudes, comfort level, and training in autism. Results: The majority of clinicians (82.0%, n=73) had interacted with autistic students in the past year, and reported high levels of comfort with treating anxiety and depression. However, a smaller number reported confidence in their ability to diagnose autism. Training on autism emerged as an important deficit, as 31.5% of the clinicians denied receiving training either in their educational program or the UCCC. Conclusions: In this pilot study, clinicians reported a discrepancy between self-reported levels of comfort with autistic college students and past training, highlighting continuing education as an important area for future intervention.

Background: Many children experience delayed or missed identification of an intellectual disability diagnosis, meaning that key opportunities for early educational intervention may be lost. Methods: Semi-structured interviews were used to explore the views of teachers, parents, and clinicians (n = 22), about the use of the Child and Adolescent Intellectual Disability Screening Questionnaire (CAIDS-Q) and what could improve screening and identification of intellectual disability in schools. Thematic analysis was used to identify relevant themes. Results: Three themes were identified: the need for, and role of, screening in the context of limited knowledge about intellectual disability; the impact of screening and subsequent identification of intellectual disability; and the context within which participants felt screening should take place in order to maximise its benefits. Conclusions: The results confirmed the importance and benefits of timely identification of children with an intellectual disability and the positive role that screening might play in this.

The identification of specific learning disabilities (SLD) remains fraught with controversy and uncertainty about professionals' capacity to appropriately identify special education eligibility. For students from linguistically minoritized backgrounds, the "exclusionary clause" prohibits the identification of learning difficulties primarily attributable to contextual or linguistic factors. Yet the ambiguity of the federal language may hinder application, making critical states' interpretation and corresponding guidance for professional practice in eligibility determination. In this archival study, we systematically reviewed state departments' education policies and related guidance on the identification of multilingual learners with SLD, with a focus on how states have articulated policies and procedures related to the federal exclusionary clause. Our findings demonstrate variability and depth of information across states pertaining to guidance regarding the exclusionary clause. Implications for practice and policy are provided.

Possible symptoms of intellectual disability (ID) include delayed physical development that becomes more pronounced as the disability progresses, delayed development of gross and fine motor skills, sensory perception problems, and difficulty grasping the integrity of objects. Although there is no cure or reversal, research has shown that extensive training and learning can lead to easier social integration, but the human demands of diagnosis and the cost of training often result in overburdened families of origin, an unmanageable workload for teachers, and high social costs. Therefore, it is important to conduct efficient, effective, and economical assessments in a safe and reproducible training environment. Currently, the assessment of ID relies on intelligence tests, such as the Wechsler intelligence scale and the vineland adaptive behavior scale. With the rapid development of virtual reality (VR) and machine learning (ML), we created a virtual supermarket and then collected data in three areas, including eye movements, brain waves, and behaviors. We also propose an intelligent executive function evaluation using ML to develop a more objective and automatic evaluation model based on real data through physiological data obtained from user reflections. Statistical analysis of the obtained data showed that some data metrics derived from behavioral information differed significantly between ID patients and healthy participants. This shows that it is possible to perform classification through neural networks, even at multiple levels, which may prove effective for vocational training through VR.

The current study presents the results of a qualitative investigation into the perspectives of mothers who have adopted children who are deaf or hard of hearing. Nine mothers, recruited via convenience and snowball sampling, participated in semi-structured interviews via videoconference technology. The interviews were transcribed and coded for thematic analysis. Parent perspectives on the following topics were analyzed: motivation, reaction to identification, communication and technology decisions, language, services pre- and post-adoption, others' reactions, expectations, race and ethnicity, and attachment and adjustment. Based on thematic analysis of the participants' responses, key themes and implications for professional practice are proposed.

Background: Developmental language disorder (DLD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental conditions. Due to variable rates of language growth in children under 5 years, the early identification of children with DLD is challenging. Early indicators are often outlined by speech pathology regulatory bodies and other developmental services as evidence to empower caregivers in the early identification of DLD. Aims: To test the predictive relationship between parent-reported early indicators and the likelihood of children meeting diagnostic criteria for DLD at 10 years of age as determined by standardized assessment measures in a population-based sample. Methods: Data were leveraged from the prospective Raine Study (n = 1626 second-generation children: n = 104 with DLD; n = 1522 without DLD). These data were transformed into 11 predictor variables that reflect well-established early indicators of DLD from birth to 3 years, including if the child does not smile or interact with others, does not babble, makes only a few sounds, does not understand what others say, says only a few words, says words that are not easily understood, and does not combine words or put words together to make sentences. Family history (mother and father) of speech and language difficulties were also included as variables. Regression analyses were planned to explore the predictive relationship between this set of early indicator variables and likelihood of meeting DLD diagnostic criteria at 10 years. Results: No single parent-reported indicator uniquely accounted for a significant proportion of children with DLD at 10 years of age. Further analyses, including bivariate analyses testing the predictive power of a cumulative risk index of combined predictors (odds ratio (OR) = 0.95, confidence interval (CI) = 0.85-1.09, p = 0.447) and the moderating effect of sex (OR = 0.89, CI = 0.59-1.32, p = 0.563) were also non-significant. Conclusions: Parent reports of early indicators of DLD are well-intentioned and widely used. However, data from the Raine Study cohort suggest potential retrospective reporting bias in previous studies. We note that missing data for some indicators may have influenced the results. Implications for the impact of using early indicators as evidence to inform early identification of DLD are discussed.

Identification procedures for autism spectrum disorders in paediatric settings include screening and routine clinical surveillance. Screening tools are perceived as challenging, and a preference for direct observation has been reported in Ecuadorian paediatric settings. Augmentative observational procedures could prompt the application of screening tools, increase professionals' sense of self-efficacy and support referral decision-making. Following the recommendations that identification procedures should be tested in a group of children without autism from local populations, we tested a set of observational tasks on 125 children from 12 to 59 months of age in various socio-economic settings, in semi-experimental conditions and on a group of 33 non-autistic children in a paediatric-setting condition. Results indicated that the social referencing task did not produce the expected response in most children in semi-experimental conditions. Responses to the elicitation of a gesture were significantly influenced by socio-economic status and geographic area. Three other tested tasks (response to name, eye contact, response to joint attention) produced the expected responses in semi-experimental and clinical conditions, suggesting that they could be used in daily routines if fidelity to training is ensured. We discuss the implication of those findings in clinical practice and professional education in an Ecuadorian context.

Objective: To determine the demographic and clinical characteristics of children followed up with the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) at a tertiary center in Southeeast Turkey. Methods: Children followed up with the diagnosis of ASD at a university hospital child psychiatry clinic between June 2016 and June 2021 were evaluated retrospectively for comorbidities, intellectual functioning and age at diagnosis. Results: In the preschool group, females displayed significantly more frequent cognitive developmental delay. Median age at diagnosis was 36 months (IQR= 22) regardless of gender. Approximately three-fourth (73.7%) of the cases had at least one psychiatric comorbid disorder while 22.8% had at least one medical diagnosis. Psychiatric comorbidity was found to be associated with later diagnosis. Conclusion: Although the age at first diagnosis in this study is relatively earlier than the studies in the literature, most of the children with ASD are still diagnosed very late. Psychiatric comorbidities may lead to later diagnosis due to overshadowing. Training of educational and primary healthcare workers on symptoms of ASD may enable earlier diagnosis.

There is wide variability in the special education eligibility criteria for deafblindness across the United States. This study was a novel examination of variations in state factors, including eligibility criteria for deafblindness, to identify potential relationships between state factors and the number of students who are deafblind during the 2018-2019 school year. No state factors correlated to the OSEP Child Count population data. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed factors primarily relating to sensory disability professionals, which correlated to the National Center on Deaf-Blindness population data. Implications for students, personnel, and professional development offerings are discussed.

Labeling of gifted pupils can negatively affect the life path of gifted individuals. The study explores whether and how a teacher can label gifted pupils when applying educational strategies based on internal differentiation. We focused on formally identified intellectually gifted pupils (age 7-12) educated in (mainstream) elementary schools in the Czech Republic (Central Europe). Qualitative data were collected through classroom observations and teacher interviews. We observed 24 gifted pupils and 15 teachers from 12 schools. We identified five main types of educational strategies leading to inappropriate labeling, such as Tasks for Quick-witted, Challenges, Boffins Goes to Competition, Teacher's Assistant, and Individual Projects. The "inappropriateness" of these strategies consisted of the significant preference and presentation of gifted pupils, in the useless and overused selection of gifted pupils, and the rigidity of the applied strategies. The paper seeks to highlight the existence of a paradoxical phenomenon whereby, when teachers are maximally interested in promoting giftedness, the stagnation of gifted pupils and other pupils in the class occurs. The study concludes with recommendations for eliminating inappropriate labeling of gifted pupils.

This exploratory, descriptive study sought to determine the perceptions of special education (SPED) directors and their respective SPED teachers regarding self-efficacy in meeting the diverse needs of students who have English learning challenges and have been identified as having special learning needs. Also, general information regarding the various programs used and ideas concerning the work and interventions with English learners (Els) who receive SPED services were reviewed for possible discussion. Researchers utilised content analysis procedures to review and code the narrative responses from 24 SPED educators and 3 SPED directors. Peer-debriefing sessions occurred and allowed researchers to collapse categories and form themes from the narrative responses. Two themes derived from SPED teachers' responses and one theme from SPED directors' responses. Theme 1 (T1): SPED Teachers Valued Research-Based Practices, and Theme 2 (T2): SPED Teachers Expressed Frustration or Lack of Knowledge with the District's ELs Curricular Program's Connection with SPED Services. Researchers determined one viable theme, after two debriefing sessions, from SPED directors' responses, Theme 3 (T3): SPED Directors Providing Outsourced Training Resources to Special Educators was a Source of Self-Efficacy. Researchers concluded more communication and the sharing of research-based instructional resources and coordinating cross curricular trainings were needed.

A diagnosis of autism typically depends on clinical assessments by highly trained professionals. This high resource demand poses a challenge in low-resource settings. Digital assessment of neurodevelopmental symptoms by non-specialists provides a potential avenue to address this challenge. This cross-sectional case-control field study establishes proof of principle for such a digital assessment. We developed and tested an app, START, that can be administered by non-specialists to assess autism phenotypic domains (social, sensory, motor) through child performance and parent reports. N = 131 children (2-7 years old; 48 autistic, 43 intellectually disabled and 40 non-autistic typically developing) from low-resource settings in Delhi-NCR, India were assessed using START in home settings by non-specialist health workers. The two groups of children with neurodevelopmental disorders manifested lower social preference, greater sensory interest and lower fine-motor accuracy compared to their typically developing counterparts. Parent report further distinguished autistic from non-autistic children. Machine-learning analysis combining all START-derived measures demonstrated 78% classification accuracy for the three groups. Qualitative analysis of the interviews with health workers and families of the participants demonstrated high acceptability and feasibility of the app. These results provide feasibility, acceptability and proof of principle for START, and demonstrate the potential of a scalable, mobile tool for assessing neurodevelopmental conditions in low-resource settings.

Medicaid is a major insurer of autistic people. However, during the transition to adulthood, autistic individuals are more likely than people with intellectual disability to lose their Medicaid benefits. Individuals with intellectual disability may have greater success maintaining Medicaid coverage during this time because most states provide coverage to individuals with intellectual disability throughout adulthood, which is not the case for autism. Using national Medicaid data from 2008 to 2016, we estimated the probability of intellectual disability diagnosis accrual among autistic Medicaid beneficiaries. Medicaid beneficiaries ages 8 to 25 with 1+ inpatient or 2+ outpatient autism spectrum disorder claims, but no intellectual disability claim, in a 12-month eligibility period were included. We used a person-month discrete-time proportional hazards model. Disruptions in Medicaid coverage were operationalized as 2+ consecutive months of no coverage before coverage resumed (yes/no). One in five autistic individuals ages 8-25 accrued an intellectual disability diagnosis. The probability of accruing an intellectual disability diagnosis was higher among autistic individuals who had disruptions in Medicaid coverage compared to those without disruptions, and peaked at age 21 (during the transition to adulthood). Expanding Medicaid to cover autistic people of all ages could decrease the need for intellectual disability diagnosis accrual and improve health outcomes for autistic adults.

One prominent change in the amendment to the Special Education Law in the State of Israel (2018) concerns the dissolution of placement committees and their transformation into characterization and eligibility committees. These characterization and eligibility committees determine children's eligibility for special education, whereas parents decide the nature of their school placement. Through in-depth interviews with parents of school-aged children with various disabilities, this study examined parents' perceptions of the change in the law and its effects on their children. The interviews revealed four key findings regarding parents' experiences of shifting to a characterization and eligibility committee. The ramifications of the gap between legislative intentions (top-down educational policy) and parents' experiences as policy subjects (bottom-up educational implementation) are discussed.

General labels tend to obscure objective realities upon which disability rights are based and can deny individuals with disabilities their educational and civil rights. Undoubtedly, stigma can come from labels unnecessarily categorizing people into separate groups. However, stigma does not reside primarily in disability categories/terms but in what people think of words' referents. The replacement of the old disability categories/terms with new ones is a case of what is called the "euphemism treadmill," showing how concepts and mentally represented realities, not words, are the key issue. However, in the case of disabilities, scientific names are unavoidable for the purposes of research, education, advocacy, and social welfare. Some people try to avoid naming special education and its derivatives just as they do in the case of disability categories. We argue that scientifically validated disability and special education labels are necessary and legitimate classifications required for progress in disability research and practice. They provide the most direct route to legally protecting and serving individuals with educational disabilities.

Multi-exceptional children often have deficits in auditory, visual, or sensory processing. As few psychologists have training in modalities, these deficits may be misdiagnosed as AD/HD, Nonverbal Learning Disorder, Autism, Dyslexia, or a host of personality disorders. This article describes the symptoms of these processing deficits and offers suggestions for therapeutic interventions. Conundrums in diagnosing the complex profiles of multi-exceptional children are addressed. Qualitative assessment is recommended as an alternative or adjunct to traditional assessment. The "Checklist for Recognizing Twice Exceptional Children" is included to help parents, teachers, and graduate students gain awareness of the many manifestations of multi-exceptionality. The author's experience as a clinician specializing in multi-exceptional children serves as the basis for the article.

Research on how adults react to receiving an autism diagnosis is focused on the United States or the United Kingdom context even though cultural differences might have an impact on these experiences. Few interventions for autistic adults exist, and when they do, they are often described as inappropriate. Our study aimed to explore the experiences of French adults diagnosed with autism and the needs they identified following this diagnosis as well as to ask them directly what type of interventions they would have wanted. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 12 adults and identified three recurring themes: (1) reactions to the diagnosis, (2) relations with others and society, and (3) wants and needs. Results indicated that some experiences were congruent with existing Anglophone literature, while others were heavily influenced by the specific cultural context. Our participants also highlighted a number of unmet needs and offered suggestions for adequate interventions.

This study aims to classify subtypes of mathematics disability (MD) using a novel classification method, cognitive diagnostic models (CDMs), and examine whether domain-general skills, namely, linguistic, working memory, and spatial skills, were related to the identification of the subtypes. Participants were 454 children (246 boys; age: M ± SD = 88.66 ± 5.92 months), including 204 MD children and a control group of 250 low-achieving children, who were identified from a sample of 3,384 second graders in China. Six MD subtypes were classified: the symbolic and concept deficits group, the verbal and concept deficits group, the pervasive deficits group, the concept deficits group, the mapping and concept deficits group, and the unknown deficits group. The reliability and validity of using CDMs to identify MD subtypes were evaluated. Different constellations of working memory, spatial, and linguistic skills were found to contribute to different MD subtypes. Identifying subtypes of MD and their domain-general correlates sheds light on appropriate interventions targeting different MD subtypes.

The timing of autism spectrum disorder detection in research and clinical practice is characterised by substantial heterogeneity ranging from infancy to school age. In this study, we examined the age of diagnosis and its associated individual and socio-familial factors in Chinese children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. A sample of 1235 autism spectrum disorder children from 132 rehabilitation organisations in Shenzhen was investigated in 2021. We found a mean age of diagnosis of 31.4 ± 12.7 months and a median of 30.0 months. Although 71.7% of the children received their diagnosis between 25 and 36 months of age, and 13.3% were diagnosed early (?24 months), 15.1% did not have their symptoms detected until preschool or later years (>36 months). The diagnosis was likely delayed (>36 months) if the children were older, were less severe and presented with no intellectual impairment. The odds of delayed autism spectrum disorder diagnosis were more than 9 times higher among migrant autism spectrum disorder children than those with local household registrations. The study underscores the importance of identifying culturally sensitive socio-economic determinants in autism spectrum disorder detection in addition to clinical factors, as the former are likely to affect the quality of life of many autism spectrum disorder children and their families.

This study was an initial step toward planning tele-practice in a South Indian state's public-sector services for childhood hearing and speech-language problems. The aim was to understand the perceptions public-sector health care professionals (HCPs) regarding their willingness and need for tele-practice-based diagnostics and rehabilitation services. Focus group discussions (FGD), semi-structured interviews (SSI), and geo-spatial analysis were employed in a cross-sectional study. Different public-sector HCPs participated in the qualitative study. Data sufficiency was assessed using theoretical saturation and cross-case variance. Data was analyzed using hybrid deductive-inductive thematic analysis. Geo-tags and geo-locations of all children with disabilities and all the public-sector service providers were used to generate geospatial maps. HCPs felt that childhood hearing and speech-language disorder services were inadequate and lacked sufficient qualified professionals. There was inconsistent equipment and professional availability in district-level facilities. HCPs were comfortable using technology, and were willing to investigate tele-practice, but they required training in tele-practice.

School-age children constitute a significant portion of the Syrian refugee population in Türkiye. However, the number of studies examining the Syrian refugee children with disabilities (SRCwDs) is very limited. This paper examines intersections of race, disability, and refugee status by providing a systematic review of the available research focusing on SRCwDs residing in Türkiye. After giving contextual information regarding the status of Syrian refugees and presenting research on Syrian refugee children in Türkiye, this paper analyses existing studies on SRCwDs within the theoretical framework of DisCrit. This analysis reveals that research focusing on SRCwDs living in Türkiye is very limited and reliable and comprehensive data is necessary to identify their number in the country. There are also numerous problems regarding their access to services and schooling. Finally, this paper offers recommendations for practice and further research.