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We theorize about how people with positional power enact "downward deference"--a practice of lowering oneself to be equal to lower-power workers--based on a study of 115 top global leaders at a large U.S. company. These leaders were charged with advancing organizational goals in foreign markets. We find that some leaders enacted downward deference when they recognized that they had less expertise, networks, and influence relative to their local subordinates. This manifested in two ways: (a) attempts to reduce social distance, which involved seeking connection, earning trust, and participating in adjacent collaboration with local subordinates, and (b) yielding to subordinates' expertise by privileging their judgment, transferring influence to them, and conforming to their local hierarchical expectations. Our supplementary quantitative analyses showed that previous experiences in foreign cultures, both in terms of total time spent abroad and exposure to cultures that were distant from their own, correlated with adopting downward deference. Those leaders also had higher job performance ratings, and were promoted to higher executive levels over time, compared to their counterparts who did not practice downward deference. Our study expands our understanding of positional power, social distance, and the conditions under which actors practice downward deference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I report findings from research conducted among immigrant children and children of immigrants in Princeton and Trenton, New Jersey—including unaccompanied minors and those protected by Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA). On the basis of participant observation and extended interviews, I investigate the role played by human and financial resources, advocacy organizations, kin and friendship networks, and religiosity in the capacity of young people to resist downward mobility. Demographic factors and class-related dynamics prove to be decisive factors shaping the self-image of immigrant children. The paper provides a theoretical framework accounting for variations in young people's power to adjust in hostile environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature on preferences for redistribution has paid little attention to the effect of social mobility on the demand for redistribution and no systematic test of the hypotheses connecting social mobility and preferences for redistribution has yet been done to date. We use the diagonal reference model to estimate the effect of origin and destination classes on preferences for redistribution in a large sample of European countries using data from the European Social Survey. Our findings are consistent with the logic of acculturation in the sense that newcomers tend to adapt their views to those of the destination class at early stages and that upward and downward mobility do not have distinctive effects on the formation of political preferences. However, even though social origins seem to have a limited impact on preferences for redistribution, the evidence does not support the hypothesis that mobile and non‐mobile individuals are alike. We also find that the effect of social origin on preferences varies largely across countries. The empirical evidence leads to the conclusion that the effect of social origin on preferences for redistribution increases in contexts of strong familism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The iconic 'liberal theory' of stratification fails to attend to the many types of downward mobility and wage loss generated by late‐industrial stratification systems. Although the liberal theory and its close cousins assume that loss and failure will be interpreted in individualistic terms, recent developments suggest instead that they are generating solidary groups that are increasingly locked into zero‐sum contest and successfully mobilized by politicians and other norm entrepreneurs. These developments imply a Marxisant future for late‐industrial inequality that bears scant resemblance to the highly individualized, unstructured, and non‐conflictual stratification system envisaged by the liberal theory. We outline a new post‐liberal theory of stratification that better captures the forces making for change and resistance in late‐industrial societies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines how funding for manpower programs be allocated across geographical areas and presents alternative formulas that are designed to reflect various goals of manpower policy. In any analysis, major importance should be given to the need for recognizing that there is a net flow of workers into the central cities from the suburban areas. Ensuring access to adequate data for updating the formula is a major problem for any manpower revenue-sharing formula. Because some formulas are based on unemployment rather than income data, they are more easily updated compared to others that have been proposed.

In this contribution I deal with two weaknesses of integration theories which have become particularly evident since the deterioration of migrants'and natives'conditions produced by the economic crisis that began in 2008. The first weakness that I will address is the tendency to establish a conceptually tight relationship between integration and migrants'upward socio-economic mobility. The second can be identified in the almost exclusive focus on migrants' conditions neglecting natives': given that integration is generally conceived of as a relational concept which considers reciprocal positions of migrants and natives, I argue that changes in the situation of the latter should be taken into much greater consideration. Starting from these remarks, I propose a typology of incorporation modes which takes into account both natives'and migrants'downward mobility, and progress and regressions in migrant incorporation with two main aims: on the one hand, to reconcile integration with migrants'downward mobility, and, on the other hand, to translate the reversible nature of integration, on which scholars generally agree, into analytical modes of incorporation which are still lacking in the literature. Finally, I assess the soundness of my typology by considering some empirical evidence from Southern European countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Technological and societal changes have made downward social and economic mobility a pressing issue in real-world politics. This article argues that a Rawlsian society would not provide any special protection against downward mobility, and would act rightly in declining to provide such protection. Special treatment for the downwardly mobile can be grounded neither in Rawls's core principles-the basic liberties, fair equality of opportunity, and the difference principle-nor in other aspects of Rawls's theory (the concept of legitimate expectations, the idea of a life plan, the distinction between allocative and distributive justice, or the distinction between ideal and nonideal theory). Instead, a Rawlsian society is willing to sacrifice particular individuals' ambitions and plans for the achievement of justice, and offers those who lose out from justified change no special solicitude over and above the general solicitude extended to all. Rather than guaranteeing the maintenance of any particular individual or group's economic position, it provides all of its members-the upwardly mobile, the downwardly mobile, and the immobile-a form of security that is at once more generous and more limited: that they will receive the liberties, opportunities, and resources promised by the principles of justice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa faces the challenges of poverty, unemployment and inequality, as well as looming problems regarding water, energy and food. Science, technology and engineering are able to address some of these challenges but are often inaccessible and unfamiliar to the general public. Research and innovation in these fields needs to be increased, and undertaken in partnership with multidisciplinary stakeholders. This article uses the example of an engineering education initiative, the African Solar Drive, to illustrate how this may be achieved. It discusses recent developments in the philosophy of science that have emphasised responsibility in research and development, the similarities of these with action research methodologies and the relevance of these for the concerns South Africa faces at the moment. It presents a general methodology for science-society engagement and locates the African Solar Drive as a prelude to such engagement between higher education and the general public. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present article describes a method for proving Downward Löwenheim-Skolem Theorem within an arbitrary institution satisfying certain logic properties. In order to demonstrate the applicability of the present approach, the abstract results are instantiated to many-sorted first-order logic and preorder algebra. In addition to the first technique for proving Downward Löwenheim-Skolem Theorem, another one is developed, in the spirit of institution-independent model theory, which consists of borrowing the result from a simpler institution across an institution comorphism. As a result, the Downward Löwenheim-Skolem Property is exported from first-order logic to partial algebras, and from higher-order logic with intensional Henkin semantics to higher-order logic with extensional Henkin semantics. The second method successfully extends the domain of application of Downward Löwenheim-Skolem Theorem to other non-conventional logical systems for which the first technique may fail. One major application of Downward Löwenheim-Skolem Theorem is interpolation in constructor-based logics with universally quantified sentences. The interpolation property is established by borrowing it from a base institution for its constructor-based variant across an institution morphism. This result is important as interpolation for constructor-based first-order logics is still an open problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the self-employed population as a precarious and insecure social class in Korea since the economic crisis in the late 1990s. Most self-employed workers experience economic hardship characterized by low incomes and high turnover rates despite long work hours and family help. These precarious conditions are often explained as the result of neoliberal economic restructuring that laid off salaried employees on a massive scale, pushed displaced workers into self-employment, and heightened intense competition among the self-employed. While this economic perspective explains intense competition and low incomes of the self-employed, I argue that particular state policies also accelerated the "unmaking" of the self-employed by not providing any effective protection. By looking at the experiences of understudied self-employed workers in Korea, this article engages in a critical understanding of globalization, labor, and social inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing on administrative data from the Social Security Administration, we find that individuals that go through a long period of non-employment suffer large and long-term earnings losses (around 35-40 percent) compared to individuals with similar age and previous earnings histories. Importantly, these differences depend on past earnings, and are largest at the bottom and top of the earnings distribution. Focusing on workers that are employed 10 years after a period of long-term non-employment, we find much smaller earnings losses (8-10 percent). Furthermore, the large earnings losses of low-income individuals are almost entirely due to employment effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior research on stratification beliefs has investigated individuals' understandings regarding the causes of poverty in America. These past studies have uncovered demographic characteristics associated with individualist and structuralist explanations for poverty. In the current study, we will argue that Americans, like social scientists, envision poverty as a heterogeneous and complex phenomenon. We utilize a cultural cognition theoretical approach to conceptualize these understandings of poverty as schemas. We contend that a schema of poverty contains a set of unique associations regarding both demographic beliefs (who the poor are) and causal attributions (why they are poor). Using original data in a mixed-methods design that incorporates inductive and experimental components, we find that people differentiate between two key types of poverty: intergenerational poverty and downward mobility. People perceive each type of poverty as caused by a different set of factors and as experienced by a different group of people. The type of poverty envisioned is, in most cases, as important as or more important than a respondent's own demographic characteristics in predicting what type of causal attributions he or she makes for poverty. These findings underscore the importance of investigating different schemas of poverty in future stratification beliefs research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to present new perspectives for the understanding on multidimensional poverty in northern Brazil in the years 2006-13, in order to assist the government in developing policies focused on fighting poverty and advancing the development process. The study used a methodology built by Bourguignon and Chakravarty (2003), which presents an alternative way of measuring the multidimensionality of poverty. The data was collected from the National Household Sample Survey (PNAD) and the results of six dimensions analyzed revealed a reduction in the proportion of multidimensional poor of the northern population, from 30.71% in 2006 to 25.79% in 2013. As for isolated analysis of metropolitan regions in urban and rural areas, it was found that poverty was more intense in rural areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several studies have shown that Dutch society has become more open in the last few decades as a result of increasing opportunities for upward social mobility. However, recently it has been observed that the likelihood of downward social mobility has increased for the youngest (male) birth cohorts in the Netherlands. Despite this recent finding, social stratification research has paid little attention to test explanations of downward mobility. This article tries to fill in this knowledge gap by testing three theoretical perspectives that aim to explain intergenerational downward occupational mobility of individuals. In addition, we examine historical developments to study whether the role of these explanations have changed over time. To test the predictive validity of these perspectives, we use data from the Family Survey Dutch Population 2009 (N = 1423). The empirical results, first of all, indicate that individuals who were born in younger birth cohorts are more likely to experience downward occupational mobility than individuals, who were born in older cohorts. We thus replicate earlier findings for the Netherlands. Secondly, we find that cognitive skills and, especially, educational attainment provide individuals significant protection against downward mobility. These findings are mainly in line with the meritocratic perspective. Thirdly, the results reveal that the role of the presumed explanations of downward mobility has not changed over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A literary criticism is presented for the book "Voyage in the Dark" by Jean Rhys. It considers how the protagonist Anna Morgan is depicted as a creole in English society. Topics explored include the themes of dirt and cleanliness, space, and place, the authors use of narrative, and downward mobility in literature.

According to nation branding consultants, problems of underdevelopment and global inequality are, to a significant extent, a product of the negative images peddled by charities and the broader development industry. While such images secure donations, it is argued they deter more sustainable investments. In contrast, consultants argue that concerted nation-branding strategies offer much better solutions to problems of underdevelopment. This article subjects such claims to critical examination and argues that while the diagnosis of the problem may have some merit, the solution offered is more problematic. This is because nation-branding practices are inherently status quo oriented and reflective of a neoliberal understanding of the nature of (under)development. Moreover, nation branding also entails a troubling commodification of identity and culture as well as unsettling implications in respect of extant understandings of 'good governance'. Finally, the article suggests that the dichotomy drawn between aid and nation branding cannot be upheld; rather, it is a device used to legitimise a market for the services of nation-branding consultants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Acta Neophilologica is the property of Acta Neophilologica and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The poverty scorecard and the Poverty Assessment Tool (PAT) are two simple, low-cost ways for local, pro-poor organizations to measure the expenditure-based poverty of their participants and thus to report on (and manage) their social performance. How do the two tools differ? For estimating a group's poverty rate, both are unbiased, and the scorecard has smaller standard errors. For targeting individual households, the PAT correctly classifies about one more household per 100. The scorecard has had greater up-take due to its edge in availability, recentness, and transparency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been growing research interest into poverty and social exclusion in Hong Kong over the past 30 years. However, the development of surveys in this field continues to be primarily 'top-down' or 'expert-led'. 'Bottom-up' or 'lay' perspectives, utilising the views of ordinary members of the public, are rarely incorporated. This article discusses the use of consensual focus group methods to advance the theory and practice of poverty and social exclusion measurement in Hong Kong. By adapting the UK Poverty and Social Exclusion Study 2012 to the Hong Kong context, the article reports on public perceptions of the necessities of life and understanding of social exclusion. The study found a strong social consensus about what items and activities constitute an acceptable standard of living in Hong Kong. Furthermore, whilst social exclusion was an unfamiliar concept, participants were able identify and explain experiences such as discrimination (affecting new arrivals), geographical isolation, a culture of long-working hours and poor access to health services as key elements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This note shows that the models estimated in Babecký et al. (Scand J Econ 112(4):884-910, ) do not allow identifying the determinants of downward nominal wage rigidity and provides new empirical evidence on the importance of downward nominal wage rigidity and its determinants in several European countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To identify whether psychological distress is associated with an increased risk of falling into poverty, giving a more complete picture of how psychological distress affects living standards.Methods: Longitudinal analysis of the nationally representative Household Income and Labour Dynamics in Australian (HILDA) survey using Poisson regression models to estimate relative risk of falling into income poverty and multidimensional poverty between 2007 and 2012. The sample was limited to those who were not already in income poverty in 2007. Psychological distress was identified using the Kessler-10 (K10) scale.Results: After adjusting for confounding factors, having moderate psychological distress increased the risk of falling into income poverty by 1.62 (95% CI 1.31-2.01, p < 0.0001) and the risk of falling into multidimensional poverty by 1.85 (95% CI 1.37-2.48, p < 0.0001); having very high psychological distress increased the risk of falling into income poverty by 2.40 (95% CI 1.80-3.20, p < 0.0001) and the risk of falling into multidimensional poverty by 3.68 (95% CI 2.63-5.15, p < 0.0001), compared to those with low psychological distress. Those who did experience income poverty (RR: 1.29, 95% CI 1.04-1.61, p = 0.0210) and those who experienced multidimensional poverty (RR: 1.69, 95% CI 1.32-2.17, p < 0.0001) had an increased risk of having their level of psychological distress increase further compared to those who did not experience poverty.Conclusion: To date, the increased risk of falling into poverty that is associated with elevated levels of psychological distress has been an overlooked burden of the condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate middle-class poverty politics in Seattle and Buenos Aires in a period of recovery from deep neoliberal economic crisis. Reading these cases in relation to one another allows us to examine what sorts of class subjects emerge in the US, which is theorized as remaining deeply entrenched in neoliberal governance and Argentina, conceptualized as postneoliberal. We investigate the poverty politics of middle-class residents engaged in anti- or pro-poor activism against homeless encampments or squatter settlements in urban neighborhoods. Rooted in relational poverty theory, we conceptualize these forms of activism as relational practices through which class subjectivities are reiterated or challenged through interactions across class lines. Specifically, we examine (i) how middle-class actors frame their differences or alliances with poorer residents and (ii) how these framings of middle-class selves and poorer others are expressed in poverty politics and cross-class antagonisms or alliances. Our analysis reveals poverty as a key site for the making of middle-class actors as individualized, aspirational, normative subjects in both countries. And yet the poverty politics of middle-class actors is not a foregone conclusion because cross-class alliances do arise, pointing toward the potential for alternative readings of class difference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using census data, we analyse inequality and poverty levels for the coal-rich region of Latrobe Valley between 1986 and 2006, a period incorporating industry restructuring, recession and subsequent growth. To enable the analysis using limited information, we propose a method for using grouped data to obtain income distributions for small areas. Unit record data are used to validate the methodology. We find that welfare in the region deteriorated between 1986 and 1996, in line with national and regional trends. However, between 1996 and 2006, when the national economy grew strongly and many regions started to prosper again, welfare in the Valley continued to deteriorate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More than a billion entrepreneurs worldwide live in subsistence contexts and run microenterprises to meet life's basic consumption needs. In this article, the authors investigate how two types of consumption constraints in poverty, chronic and periodic constraints, combine to influence entrepreneurial intention. Chronic and periodic constraints are concomitant in subsistence marketplaces and represent consumption-side constraints. A field experiment shows that chronic constraints amplify entrepreneurial intention, but this effect is contingent on the level of periodic constraints. When experiencing low periodic constraints, people with high chronic constraints have greater entrepreneurial intentions than do those with low chronic constraints. When experiencing more periodic constraints, however, the authors do not find this difference. Another field experiment shows the effectiveness of marketplace literacy education in alleviating the adverse impact of periodic constraints through enhancing entrepreneurial self-efficacy. The authors present specific policy recommendations for government, social enterprise, and business relating to enhancing entrepreneurship among the poor in the face of such constraints. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the performance of a poverty alleviation policy in Thailand known as the Small and Micro Community Enterprises (SMCEs) programme. It investigates provincial determinants affecting the establishments of the SMCEs and assesses the effects of the programme on household income and out-migration by using panel data analysis and propensity score matching model. The research findings indicated that such enterprises have spread widely. Average household expenditure, the rate of poverty, and agricultural output were significant predictors of SMCE establishments. However, the research did not find any concrete evidence to support the claim that this policy helped reduce poverty or out-migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we make several contributions to the literature of poverty measurement. We first identify a plausible source for the fuzziness in poverty identification which renders a natural and direct estimation of the poverty membership function; we then provide an axiomatic characterization for an important class of fuzzy poverty measures; and we finally derive a set of crisp dominance conditions for fuzzy partial poverty orderings. We also illustrate the results with the US CPS data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Phil 4:12, Paul asserts that he knows how to be abased and how to abound. If this is more than a cliché and Paul is being genuine about his life, while his being abased can be shown easily in his letters, it is less certain when he abounded. This essay explores what may be suggested about Paul's earlier life. In his apostolic life Paul says he was weak (ασϴενɳς) and humiliated (ταπεινóς), and the essay argues that this is a description of his contrasting this new life with how his life was before. In his apostolic life, Paul chose a downward mobility to empower his evangelism of the impoverished Gentiles of cities, becoming like those he sought to convert and in that way manifesting the similar path of identification of Jesus himself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following her explosion into international consciousness as bridesmaid of her sister Kate in 2011, Pippa Middleton’s posterior became as renowned as its owner, to the extent that the hype demonstrated over Middleton’s buttocks implies an intensely charged relationship to this body part, symptomatic of fetishism. I seek to investigate this characterisation of Middleton’s backside by utilising Freudian and Marxist interpretations of fetishism that concern gender and class respectively, exposing how Middleton’s celebrity capital trades upon an economy of fetishised identity constructs, underscored by the property of division, which differentiate her from her contemporaries through her English whiteness. I analyse the materialisation of Middleton’s derrière in a broader British context, giving particular attention to how it operates as a sign of class aspirationalism and social mobility. Finally, I consider how these themes are inscribed on Middleton’s body as a whole, through her skin colour and ‘fit’ physique. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a substantial literature on the scarring effects of unemployment on future employment prospects and a smaller one on the scarring effects of low pay, but the possibility that skills mismatch, in the form of skills under-utilization, may have similar detrimental effects has not been considered before. We use the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia panel to investigate the dynamics of unemployment, low pay and skills under-utilization, including differences by gender and education. We show that, in addition to earlier evidence on wage penalties and reduced job satisfaction, skills under-utilization scars future employment prospects in a way similar to that of low pay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What happens in the occupational careers of men if the intergenerational continuity in status reproduction is disrupted by the failure to reproduce the parental level of educational attainment? We frame this failure as a risk for intergenerational status maintenance and ask whether such a risk induces extra effort by way of compensation. By studying eight birth cohorts born between 1919 and 1971 characterized by largely differing conditions with regard to educational and occupational opportunities, we examine how macro-social conditions contribute to opportunities to compensate for such failure later on. In examining this question, we add a new piece to the puzzle of how social origin and education contribute to status attainment and of how the social context shapes these linkages across historical time. We estimated multilevel growth curve models to assess the effect of educational downward mobility (EDM) on the development of occupational status over the career. Our empirical results show that the status of men who experience EDM increases faster over the course of their careers. Moreover, these men reach a slightly higher status as compared with their peers who had reached at least the same educational level as their fathers. The prevailing macro-societal conditions did not cause variation in the effect of EDM on men's career attainment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Social Psychology / Psihologie Socială is the property of Alexandru Ioan Cuza University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper explores the importance of occupational downgrading in explaining the pay gap of New Member States ( NMS) immigrants to Ireland by taking advantage of two data sources, the Census and the Survey on Income and Living Conditions ( SILC). The study identifies biases in the coverage of NMS immigrants in SILC that dampen their estimated earnings disadvantage. Corrections to population weights are suggested. These adjustments have a significant impact on results, increasing both the size of the wage penalty of NMS immigrants and the extent to which the pay gap can be explained by occupational downgrading. A replication of published results for the UK reveals similar patterns of penalties for NMS workers in both countries. Factors that may explain the concentration of NMS workers in low-skill/low-wage occupations are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates how the effects of low-wage employment and non-employment on wage prospects vary depending on qualification. Based on theories on signalling effects, human capital and job search, we discuss why there may be heterogeneity in state dependence in both labour market states. We find that episodes of low-wage employment incur a significantly lower risk of future non-employment than episodes of non-employment for low-qualified workers. In contrast, for workers with a middle or high level of qualification the risk of non-employment is not significantly different when being low-paid instead of not employed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The homeless, in post-Communist Bucharest, Romania, are bored. They describe themselves as bored all of the time. Drawing upon nearly three years of ethnographic fieldwork that moves between Bucharest's homeless shelters and squatter camps, day centers and public parks, this article approaches the homeless's boredom as an everyday affect structured by the politics of consumption in post-communist Bucharest. At the center of this study sits not simply the inability to consume but also the feeling of being cast aside, of being downwardly mobile in a neoliberal era of supposed ascent. In an increasingly consumer-driven society, boredom, I argue, is an affective state that registers within the modality of time the newly homeless's expulsion to the margins of the city. In this sense, boredom is a persistent form of social suffering made possible by a crisis-generated shift in the global economy, one that has forced tens of millions of people the world over to come to terms with diminished economic capacities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on qualitative research, this article looks at the impacts of the Great Recession on low-income and poor families, focusing on their challenges and survival strategies in the wake of the downturn. For many individuals who have lost their jobs, work has long been an important source of pride and social standing, and letting go of this identity is often difficult and wrought with ambivalence and a sense of failure, contributing to multiple outcomes that include social isolation, self-esteem and mental health problems, and most problematically, unwillingness to fully utilize the available social safety net. This article investigates the ways in which the stigma associated with dependency in the American context contributes to the material and emotional suffering of vulnerable individuals and families as they weather the recession and its long, slow recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales is the property of Cambridge University Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)