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Plasmoids (or magnetic islands) are believed to play an important role in the onset of fast magnetic reconnection and particle acceleration during solar flares and eruptions. Direct imaging of flare current sheets and formation/ejection of multiple plasmoids in extreme ultraviolet (EUV) images, along with simultaneous X-ray and radio observations, offers significant insights into the mechanisms driving particle acceleration in solar flares. Here we present direct imaging of the formation and ejection of multiple plasmoids in flare plasma/current sheets and associated quasi-periodic pulsations (QPPs) observed in X-ray and radio wavelengths, using observations from SDO/AIA, RHESSI, and Fermi GBM. These plasmoids propagate bidirectionally upward and downward along the flare current sheet beneath the erupting flux rope during two successive flares associated with confined/failed eruptions. The flux rope exhibits evidence of helical kink instability with formation and ejection of multiple plasmoids in the flare current sheet, as predicted in an MHD simulation of a kink-unstable flux rope. RHESSI X-ray images show double coronal sources (``loop-top" and higher coronal sources) located at both ends of the flare current/plasma sheet. Moreover, we detected an additional transient faint X-ray source (6-12 keV) located between the double coronal sources, which was co-spatial with multiple plasmoids in the flare current sheet. X-ray (soft and hard) and radio (decimetric) observations unveil QPPs (periods$\approx$10-s and 100-s) associated with the ejection and coalescence of plasmoids. These observations suggest that energetic electrons are accelerated during the ejection and coalescence of multiple plasmoids in the flare current sheet., Comment: ApJ (in press), 27 pages, 17 figures

Solar flares and the often associated solar eruptive events serve as an outstanding laboratory to study the magnetic reconnection and the associated energy release and conversion processes under plasma conditions difficult to reproduce in the laboratory, and with considerable spatiotemporal details not possible elsewhere in the universe. In the past decade, thanks to advances in multi-wavelength imaging spectroscopy, as well as developments in theories and numerical modeling, significant progress has been made in improving our understanding of solar flare/eruption energy release. In particular, broadband imaging spectroscopy at microwave wavelengths offered by the Expanded Owens Valley Solar Array (EOVSA) has enabled the revolutionary capability of measuring the time-evolving coronal magnetic fields at or near the flare reconnection region. However, owing to EOVSA's limited dynamic range, imaging fidelity, and angular resolution, such measurements can only be done in a region around the brightest source(s) where the signal-to-noise is sufficiently large. In this white paper, after a brief introduction to the outstanding questions and challenges pertinent to magnetic energy release in solar flares and eruptions, we will demonstrate how a next-generation radio facility with many (~100-200) antenna elements can bring the next revolution by enabling high dynamic range, high fidelity broadband imaging spectropolarimetry along with a sub-second time resolution and arcsecond-level angular resolution. We recommend to prioritize the implementation of such a ground-based instrument within this decade. We also call for facilitating multi-wavelength, multi-messenger observations and advanced numerical modeling in order to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the "system science" of solar flares and eruptions., Comment: Science white paper submitted to the 2024 Solar and Space Physics Decadal Survey. All submitted white papers (including this one) are available at https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/decadal-survey-for-solar-and-space-physics-heliophysics-2024-2033

The solar corona routinely exhibits explosive activity, in particular coronal mass ejections and their accompanying eruptive flares, that have global-scale consequences. These events and their smaller counterparts, coronal jets, originate in narrow, sinuous filament channels. The key processes that form and evolve the channels operate on still smaller spatial scales and much longer time scales, culminating in a vast separation of characteristic lengths and times that govern these explosive phenomena. In this article, we describe implementation and tests of an efficient subgrid-scale model for generating eruptive structures in magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) coronal simulations. STITCH -- STatistical InjecTion of Condensed Helicity -- is a physics-based, reduced representation of helicity condensation: a process wherein small-scale vortical surface convection forms ubiquitous current sheets, and pervasive reconnection across the sheets mediates an inverse cascade of magnetic helicity and free energy, thereby forming the filament channels. STITCH abstracts these complex processes into a single new term, in the MHD Ohm's law and induction equation, which directly injects tangential magnetic flux into the low corona. We show that this approach is in very good agreement with a full helicity-condensation calculation that treats all of the dynamics explicitly, while enabling substantial reductions in temporal duration especially, but also in spatial resolution. In addition, we illustrate the flexibility of STITCH at forming localized filament channels and at energizing complex surface flux distributions that have sinuous boundaries. STITCH is simple to implement and computationally efficient, making it a powerful new technique for event-based, data-driven modeling of solar eruptions., Comment: 18 pages, 9 figures, submitted to ApJ

Solar flares may be the best-known examples of the explosive conversion of magnetic energy into bulk motion, plasma heating, and particle acceleration via magnetic reconnection. The energy source for all flares is the highly sheared magnetic field of a filament channel above a polarity inversion line (PIL). During the flare, this shear field becomes the so-called reconnection guide field (i.e., the non-reconnecting component), which has been shown to play a major role in determining key properties of the reconnection including the efficiency of particle acceleration. We present new high-resolution, three-dimensional, magnetohydrodynamics simulations that reveal the detailed evolution of the magnetic shear/guide field throughout an eruptive flare. The magnetic shear evolves in three distinct phases: shear first builds up in a narrow region about the PIL, then expands outward to form a thin vertical current sheet, and finally is transferred by flare reconnection into an arcade of sheared flare loops and an erupting flux rope. We demonstrate how the guide field may be inferred from observations of the sheared flare loops. Our results indicate that initially the guide field is larger by about a factor of 5 than the reconnecting component, but it weakens by more than an order of magnitude over the course of the flare. Instantaneously, the guide field also varies spatially over a similar range along the three-dimensional current sheet. We discuss the implications of the remarkable variability of the guide field for the timing and localization of efficient particle acceleration in flares., Comment: 15 pages, published in the Astrophysical Journal

We analyze the structure and evolution of ribbons from the M7.3 SOL2014-04-18T13 flare using ultraviolet (UV) images from IRIS and SDO/AIA, magnetic data from SDO/HMI, hard X-ray (HXR) images from RHESSI, and light curves from Fermi/GBM, in order to infer properties of coronal magnetic reconnection. As the event progresses, two flare ribbons spread away from the magnetic polarity inversion line. The width of the newly brightened front along the extension of the ribbon is highly intermittent in both space and time, presumably reflecting non-uniformities in the structure and/or dynamics of the flare current sheet. Furthermore, the ribbon width grows most rapidly in regions exhibiting concentrated non-thermal HXR emission, with sharp increases slightly preceding the HXR bursts. The light curve of the ultraviolet emission matches the HXR light curve at photon energies above 25 keV. In other regions the ribbon-width evolution and light curves do not temporally correlate with the HXR emission. This indicates that the production of non-thermal electrons is highly non-uniform within the flare current sheet. Our results suggest a strong connection between the production of non-thermal electrons and the locally enhanced perpendicular extent of flare ribbon fronts, which in turn reflects inhomogeneous structure and/or reconnection dynamics of the current sheet. Despite this variability, the ribbon fronts remain nearly continuous, quasi-one-dimensional features. Thus, although the reconnecting coronal current sheets are highly structured, they remain quasi-two-dimensional and the magnetic energy release occurs systematically, rather than stochastically, through the volume of reconnecting magnetic flux.

The formation, development and impact of slow shocks in the upstream region of reconnecting current layers are explored. Slow shocks have been documented in the upstream region of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations of magnetic reconnection as well as in similar simulations with the {\it kglobal} kinetic macroscale simulation model. They are therefore a candidate mechanism for preheating the plasma that is injected into the current layers that facilitate magnetic energy release in solar flares. Of particular interest is their potential role in producing the hot thermal component of electrons in flares. During multi-island reconnection, the formation and merging of flux ropes in the reconnecting current layer drives plasma flows and pressure disturbances in the upstream region. These pressure disturbances steepen into slow shocks that propagate along the reconnecting component of the magnetic field and satisfy the expected Rankine-Hugoniot jump conditions. Plasma heating arises from both compression across the shock and the parallel electric field that develops to maintain charge neutrality in a kinetic system. Shocks are weaker at lower plasma $\beta $, where shock steepening is slow. While these upstream slow shocks are intrinsic to the dynamics of multi-island reconnection, their contribution to electron heating remains relatively minor compared with that from Fermi reflection and the parallel electric fields that bound the reconnection outflow., Comment: 9 pages and 5 figures

We present observations and modeling of the magnetic field configuration, morphology, and dynamics of a large-scale, high-latitude filament eruption observed by the Solar Dynamics Observatory. We analyze the 2015 July 9-10 filament eruption and the evolution of the resulting coronal mass ejection (CME) through the solar corona. The slow streamer-blowout CME leaves behind an elongated post-eruption arcade above the extended polarity inversion line that is only poorly visible in extreme ultraviolet (EUV) disk observations and does not resemble a typical bright flare-loop system. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulation results from our data-inspired modeling of this eruption compare favorably with the EUV and white-light coronagraph observations. We estimate the reconnection flux from the simulation's flare-arcade growth and examine the magnetic-field orientation and evolution of the erupting prominence, highlighting the transition from an erupting sheared-arcade filament channel into a streamer-blowout flux-rope CME. Our results represent the first numerical modeling of a global-scale filament eruption where multiple ambiguous and complex observational signatures in EUV and white light can be fully understood and explained with the MHD simulation. In this context, our findings also suggest that the so-called "stealth CME" classification, as a driver of unexpected or "problem" geomagnetic storms, belongs more to a continuum of observable/non-observable signatures than to separate or distinct eruption processes., Comment: 22 pages, 14 figures, 2 tables, accepted for publication in ApJ

The first self-consistent simulations of electron acceleration during magnetic reconnection in a macroscale system are presented. Consistent with solar flare observations the spectra of energetic electrons take the form of power-laws that extend more than two decades in energy. The drive mechanism for these nonthermal electrons is Fermi reflection in growing and merging magnetic flux ropes. A strong guide field is found to suppress the production of nonthermal electrons by weakening the Fermi drive mechanism. For a weak guide field the total energy content of nonthermal electrons dominates that of the hot thermal electrons even though their number density remains small. Our results are benchmarked with the hard x-ray, radio and extreme ultra-violet (EUV) observations of the X8.2-class solar flare on September 10, 2017.

A new computational model, kglobal, is being developed to explore energetic electron production via magnetic reconnection in macroscale systems. The model is based on the discovery that the production of energetic electrons during reconnection is controlled by Fermi reflection in large-scale magnetic fields and not by parallel electric fields localized in kinetic scale boundary layers. Thus, the model eliminates these boundary layers. However, although the parallel electric fields that develop around the magnetic x-line and associated separatrices are not important in producing energetic electrons, there is a large scale electric field that kickstarts the heating of low-energy electrons and drives the cold-electron return current that accompanies escaping energetic electrons in open systems. This macroscale electric field is produced by magnetic-field-aligned gradients in the electron pressure. We have upgraded kglobal to include this large-scale electric field while maintaining energy conservation. The new model is tested by exploring the dynamics of electron acoustic modes which develop as a consequence of the presence of two electron species: hot kinetic and cold fluid electrons. Remarkably, the damping of electron acoustic modes is accurately captured by kglobal. Additionally, it has been established that kglobal correctly describes the dynamics of the interaction of the parallel electric field with escaping hot electrons through benchmarking simulations with the Particle-In-Cell (PIC) code p3d., Comment: 7 pages, 3 figures, double columns

Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and eruptive flares (EFs) are the most energetic explosions in the solar system. Their underlying origin is the free energy that builds up slowly in the sheared magnetic field of a filament channel. We report the first end-to-end numerical simulation of a CME/EF, from zero-free-energy initial state through filament-channel formation to violent eruption, driven solely by the magnetic-helicity condensation process. Helicity is the topological measure of linkages between magnetic flux systems, and is conserved in the corona, building up inexorably until it is ejected into interplanetary space. Numerous investigations have demonstrated that helicity injected by small-scale vortical motions, such as those observed in the photosphere, undergoes an inverse cascade from small scales to large, `condensing' at magnetic-polarity boundaries. Our new results verify that this process forms a filament channel within a compact bipolar region embedded in a background dipole field, and show for the first time that a fast CME eventually occurs via the magnetic-breakout mechanism. We further show that the trigger for explosive eruption is reconnection onset in the flare current sheet that develops above the polarity inversion line: this reconnection forms flare loops below the sheet and a CME flux rope above, and initiates high-speed outward flow of the CME. Our findings have important implications for magnetic self-organization and explosive behavior in solar and other astrophysical plasmas, and for understanding and predicting explosive solar activity., Comment: Published in ApJ, 10 pages, 4 figures

Magnetic reconnection is a fundamental physical process in many laboratory, space, and astrophysical plasma contexts. Solar flares serve as an outstanding laboratory to study the magnetic reconnection and the associated energy release and conversion processes under plasma conditions difficult to reproduce in the laboratory, and with considerable spatiotemporal details not possible elsewhere in astrophysics. Here we emphasize the unique power of remote-sensing observations of solar flares at radio wavelengths. In particular, we discuss the transformative technique of broadband radio dynamic imaging spectroscopy in making significant contributions to addressing several outstanding challenges in magnetic reconnection, including the capability of pinpointing magnetic reconnection sites, measuring the time-evolving reconnecting magnetic fields, and deriving the spatially and temporally resolved distribution function of flare-accelerated electrons., Comment: Submitted to the Astro2020 Decadal Survey call for science white papers (5 pages + references, 2 figures)

Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and eruptive flares (EFs) are the most energetic explosions in the solar system. Their underlying origin is the free energy that builds up slowly in the sheared magnetic field of a filament channel. We report the first end-to-end numerical simulation of a CME/EF, from zero-free-energy initial state through filament channel formation to violent eruption, driven solely by the magnetic-helicity condensation process. Helicity is the topological measure of linkages between magnetic flux systems, and is conserved in the corona, building up inexorably until it is ejected into interplanetary space. Numerous investigations have demonstrated that helicity injected by small-scale vortical motions, such as those observed in the photosphere, undergoes an inverse cascade from small scales to large, “condensing” at magnetic-polarity boundaries. Our new results verify that this process forms a filament channel within a compact bipolar region embedded in a background dipole field, and show for the first time that a fast CME eventually occurs via the magnetic-breakout mechanism. We further show that the trigger for explosive eruption is reconnection onset in the flare current sheet that develops above the polarity inversion line: this reconnection forms flare loops below the sheet and a CME flux rope above, and initiates high-speed outward flow of the CME. Our findings have important implications for magnetic self organization and explosive behavior in solar and other astrophysical plasmas, as well as for understanding and predicting explosive solar activity.