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Under nonequilibrium conditions, inorganic systems can produce a wealth of life-like shapes and patterns which, compared to well-formed crystalline materials, remain widely unexplored. A seemingly simple example is the formation of salt deposits during the evaporation of sessile droplets. These evaporites show great variations in their specific patterns including single rings, creep, small crystals, fractals, and featureless disks. We have explored the patterns of 42 different salts at otherwise constant conditions. Based on 7,500 images, we show that distinct pattern families can be identified and that some salts (e.g., Na 2 SO 4 and NH 4 NO 3 ) are bifurcated creating two distinct motifs. Family affiliations cannot be predicted a priori from composition alone but rather emerge from the complex interplay of evaporation, crystallization, thermodynamics, capillarity, and fluid flow. Nonetheless, chemical composition can be predicted from the deposit pattern with surprisingly high accuracy even if the set of reference images is small. These findings suggest possible applications including smartphone-based analyses and lightweight tools for space missions., Competing Interests: Competing interests statement:The authors declare no competing interest.

Although it plays a critical role in the photophysics and catalysis of lanthanides, spin-orbit coupling of electrons on individual lanthanide atoms in small clusters is not well understood. The major objective of this work is to probe such coupling of the praseodymium (Pr) 4f and 6s electrons in Pr2O2 and Pr2O2+. The approach combines mass-analyzed threshold ionization spectroscopy and spin-orbit multiconfiguration second-order quasi-degenerate perturbation theory. The energies of six ionization transitions are precisely measured; the adiabatic ionization energy of the neutral cluster is 38 045 (5) cm-1. Most of the electronic states involved in these transitions are identified as spin-orbit coupled states consisting of two or more electron spins. The electron configurations of these states are 4f46s2 for the neutral cluster and 4f46s for the singly charged cation, both in planar rhombus-type structures. The spin-orbit splitting due to the coupling of the electrons on the separate Pr atoms is on the order of hundreds of wavenumbers., (© 2023 Author(s). Published under an exclusive license by AIP Publishing.)

Density functional theory (DFT) calculations are performed to compute the lattice constants, formation energies and vacancy formation energies of transition metal nitrides (TMNs) for transition metals (TM) ranging from 3d-5d series. The results obtained using six different DFT exchange and correlation potentials (LDA, AM05, BLYP, PBE, rPBE, and PBEsol) show that the experimental lattice constants are best predicted by rPBE, while the values obtained using AM05, PBE, rPBE and PBEsol lie between the LDA and BLYP calculated values. A linear relationship is observed between the lattice constants and formation energies with the mean radii of TM and the difference in the electronegativity of TM and N in TMNs, respectively. Our calculated vacancy formation energies, in general, show that N-vacancies are more favorable than TM-vacancies in most TMNs. We observe that N-vacancy formation energies are linearly correlated with the calculated bulk formation energies indicating that TMNs with large negative formation energies are less susceptible to the formation of N-vacancies. Thus, our results from this extensive DFT study not only provide a systematic comparison of various DFT functionals in calculating the properties of TMNs but also serve as reference data for the computation-driven experimental design of materials.

We investigated the formation of small organosilicon molecules─potential precursors to silicon-carbide dust grains ejected by dying carbon-rich asymptotic giant branch stars─in the gas phase via the reaction of atomic carbon (C) in its 3 P electronic ground state with silane (SiH 4 ; X 1 A 1 ) using the crossed molecular beams technique. The reactants collided under single collision conditions at a collision energy of 13.0 ± 0.2 kJ mol -1 , leading to the formation of the silylenemethyl radical (HCSiH 2 ; X 2 B 2 ) via the unimolecular decomposition of triplet silaethylene (H 2 CSiH 2 ; a 3 A″). The silaethylene radical was formed via hydrogen migration of the triplet silylmethylene (HCSiH 3 ; X 3 A″) radical, which in turn was identified as the initial collision complex accessed via the barrierless insertion of atomic carbon into the silicon-hydrogen bond of silane. Our results mark the first observation of the silylenemethyl radical, where previously only its thermodynamically more stable methylsilylidyne (CH 3 Si; X 2 A″) and methylenesilyl (CH 2 SiH; X 2 A') isomers were observed in low-temperature matrices. Considering the abundance of silane and the availability of atomic carbon in carbon-rich circumstellar environments, our results suggest that future astrochemical models should be updated to include contributions from small saturated organosilicon molecules as potential precursors to pure gaseous silicon-carbides and ultimately to silicon-carbide dust.

The design and performance of a custom-built reaction chamber combined with an acoustic levitator, a tunable monochromatic light source, and a Raman spectrometer are reported. The pressure-compatible reaction chamber was vacuum-tested and coupled with the acoustic levitator that allows contactless sample handling, free of contingent sample requirements such as charge and refractive index. The calibration and performance of the Raman spectrometer was studied utilizing gated detection and three different gratings that can be interchanged within seconds for a desired resolution and photon collection range. A wide range of 186-5000 cm -1 Raman shift, with a small uncertainty of ±2 cm -1 , can be recorded covering a complete vibrational range in chemical reaction monitoring. The gating of the detector allowed operation under the room light and filtration of unwanted sample fluorescence. The in situ reaction perturbation and monitoring of physical and chemical changes of samples by the Raman system were demonstrated by degradation of polystyrene by monochromatic UV light and photobleaching of a potato slice by visible light. This instrument provides a versatile platform for in situ investigation of surface reactions, without external support structures and under controlled pressure and radiation conditions, relevant to various disciplines such as materials science, astrochemistry, and molecular biology., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing financial interest., (© 2021 The Authors. Published by American Chemical Society.)

Complex organosilicon molecules are ubiquitous in the circumstellar envelope of the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) star IRC+10216, but their formation mechanisms have remained largely elusive until now. These processes are of fundamental importance in initiating a chain of chemical reactions leading eventually to the formation of organosilicon molecules-among them key precursors to silicon carbide grains-in the circumstellar shell contributing critically to the galactic carbon and silicon budgets with up to 80% of the ejected materials infused into the interstellar medium. Here we demonstrate via a combined experimental, computational, and modeling study that distinct chemistries in the inner and outer envelope of a carbon star can lead to the synthesis of circumstellar silicon tricarbide (c-SiC 3 ) as observed in the circumstellar envelope of IRC+10216. Bimolecular reactions of electronically excited silicon atoms (Si( 1 D)) with allene (H 2 CCCH 2 ) and methylacetylene (CH 3 CCH) initiate the formation of SiC 3 H 2 molecules in the inner envelope. Driven by the stellar wind to the outer envelope, subsequent photodissociation of the SiC 3 H 2 parent operates the synthesis of the c-SiC 3 daughter species via dehydrogenation. The facile route to silicon tricarbide via a single neutral-neutral reaction to a hydrogenated parent molecule followed by photochemical processing of this transient to a bare silicon-carbon molecule presents evidence for a shift in currently accepted views of the circumstellar organosilicon chemistry, and provides an explanation for the previously elusive origin of circumstellar organosilicon molecules that can be synthesized in carbon-rich, circumstellar environments., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

The hitherto elusive dibridged germaniumsilylene molecule (Ge(μ-H 2 )Si) has been formed for the first time via the bimolecular gas-phase reaction of ground-state germanium atoms (Ge) with silane (SiH 4 ) under single-collision conditions. Merged with state-of-the-art electronic structure calculations, the reaction was found to proceed through initial formation of a van der Waals complex in the entrance channel, insertion of the germanium into a silicon-hydrogen bond, intersystem crossing from the triplet to the singlet surface, hydrogen migrations, and eventually elimination of molecular hydrogen via a tight exit transition state, leading to the germaniumsilylene "butterfly". This investigation provides an extraordinary peek at the largely unknown silicon-germanium chemistry on the molecular level and sheds light on the essential nonadiabatic reaction dynamics of germanium and silicon, which are quite distinct from those of the isovalent carbon system, thus offering crucial insights that reveal exotic chemistry and intriguing chemical bonding in the germanium-silicon system on the most fundamental, microscopic level.

The bimolecular gas phase reaction of ground-state silicon (Si; 3 P) with dimethylacetylene (C 4 H 6 ; X 1 A 1g ) was investigated under single collision conditions in a crossed molecular beams machine. Merged with electronic structure calculations, the data propose nonadiabatic reaction dynamics leading to the formation of singlet SiC 4 H 4 isomer(s) and molecular hydrogen (H 2 ) via indirect scattering dynamics along with intersystem crossing (ISC) from the triplet to the singlet surface. The reaction may lead to distinct energetically accessible singlet SiC 4 H 4 isomers ( 1 p8- 1 p24) in overall exoergic reaction(s) (-107 -20 +12 kJ mol -1 ). All feasible reaction products are either cyclic, carry carbene analogous silylene moieties, or carry C-Si-H or C-Si-C bonds that would require extensive isomerization from the initial collision complex(es) to the fragmenting singlet intermediate(s). The present study demonstrates the first successful crossed beams study of an exoergic reaction channel arising from bimolecular collisions of silicon, Si( 3 P), with a hydrocarbon molecule.

Interstellar silicates play a key role in star formation and in the origin of solar systems, but their synthetic routes have remained largely elusive so far. Here we demonstrate in a combined crossed molecular beam and computational study that silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) along with silicon monoxide (SiO) can be synthesized via the reaction of the silylidyne radical (SiH) with molecular oxygen (O 2 ) under single collision conditions. This mechanism may provide a low-temperature path-in addition to high-temperature routes to silicon oxides in circumstellar envelopes-possibly enabling the formation and growth of silicates in the interstellar medium necessary to offset the fast silicate destruction.

The hitherto elusive disilavinylidene (H 2 SiSi) molecule, which is in equilibrium with the mono-bridged (Si(H)SiH) and di-bridged (Si(H 2 )Si) isomers, was initially formed in the gas-phase reaction of ground-state atomic silicon (Si) with silane (SiH 4 ) under single-collision conditions in crossed molecular beam experiments. Combined with state-of-the-art electronic structure and statistical calculations, the reaction was found to involve an initial formation of a van der Waals complex in the entrance channel, a submerged barrier to insertion, intersystem crossing (ISC) from the triplet to the singlet manifold, and hydrogen migrations. These studies provide a rare glimpse of silicon chemistry on the molecular level and shed light on the remarkable non-adiabatic reaction dynamics of silicon, which are quite distinct from those of isovalent carbon systems, providing important insight that reveals an exotic silicon chemistry to form disilavinylidene., (© 2017 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

The bimolecular gas-phase reaction of ground-state atomic silicon (Si; 3 P) with disilane (Si 2 H 6 ; 1 A 1g ) was explored under single-collision conditions in a crossed molecular beam machine at a collision energy of 21 kJ mol -1 . Combined with electronic structure calculations, the results suggest the formation of Si 3 H 4 isomer(s) along with molecular hydrogen via indirect scattering dynamics through Si 3 H 6 collision complex(es) and intersystem crossing from the triplet to the singlet surface. The nonadiabatic reaction dynamics can synthesize the energetically accessible singlet Si 3 H 4 isomers in overall exoergic reaction(s) (-93 ± 21 kJ mol -1 ). All reasonable reaction products are either cyclic or hydrogen-bridged suggesting extensive isomerization processes from the reactants via the initially formed collision complex(es) to the fragmenting singlet intermediate(s). The underlying chemical dynamics of the silicon-disilane reaction are quite distinct from the isovalent carbon-ethane system that does not depict any reactivity at all, and open the door for an unconventional gas phase synthesis of hitherto elusive organosilicon molecules under single-collision conditions.

Crossed molecular beam experiments were performed to elucidate the chemical dynamics of the para-tolyl (CH 3 C 6 H 4 ) radical reaction with molecular oxygen (O 2 ) at an average collision energy of 35.3 ± 1.4 kJ mol -1 . Combined with theoretical calculations, the results show that para-tolyl is efficiently oxidized by molecular oxygen to para-toloxy (CH 3 C 6 H 4 O) plus ground-state atomic oxygen via a complex forming, overall exoergic reaction (experimental, -33 ± 16 kJ mol -1 ; computational, -42 ± 8 kJ mol -1 ). The reaction dynamics are analogous to those observed for the phenyl (C 6 H 5 ) plus molecular oxygen system which suggests the methyl group is a spectator during para-tolyl oxidation and that application of phenyl thermochemistry and reaction rates to para-substituted aryls is likely a suitable approximation.

We carried out crossed molecular beam experiments and electronic structure calculations to unravel the chemical dynamics of the reaction of the silylidyne(-d1) radical (SiH/SiD; X(2)Π) with dimethylacetylene (CH3CCCH3; X(1)A1g). The chemical dynamics were indirect and initiated by the barrierless addition of the silylidyne radical to both carbon atoms of dimethylacetylene forming a cyclic collision complex 2,3-dimethyl-1-silacyclopropenyl. This complex underwent unimolecular decomposition by atomic hydrogen loss from the silicon atom via a loose exit transition state to form the novel 2,3-dimethyl-1-silacycloprop-2-enylidene isomer in an overall exoergic reaction (experimentally: -29 ± 21 kJ mol(-1); computationally: -10 ± 8 kJ mol(-1)). An evaluation of the scattering dynamics of silylidyne with alkynes indicates that in each system, the silylidyne radical adds barrierlessly to one or to both carbon atoms of the acetylene moiety, yielding an acyclic or a cyclic collision complex, which can also be accessed via cyclization of the acyclic structures. The cyclic intermediate portrays the central decomposing complex, which fragments via hydrogen loss almost perpendicularly to the rotational plane of the decomposing complex exclusively from the silylidyne moiety via a loose exit transition state in overall weakly exoergic reaction leading to ((di)methyl-substituted) 1-silacycloprop-2-enylidenes (-1 to -13 kJ mol(-1) computationally; -12 ± 11 to -29 ± 21 kJ mol(-1) experimentally). Most strikingly, the reaction dynamics of the silylidyne radical with alkynes are very different from those of C1-C4 alkanes and C2-C4 alkenes, which do not react with the silylidyne radical at the collision energies under our crossed molecular beam apparatus, due to either excessive entrance barriers to reaction (alkanes) or overall highly endoergic reaction processes (alkenes). Nevertheless, molecules carrying carbon-carbon double bonds could react, if the carbon-carbon double bond is either consecutive like in allene (H2CCCH2) or in conjugation with another carbon-carbon double bond (conjugated dienes) as found, for instance, in 1,3-butadiene (H2CCHCHCH2).

The bimolecular gas-phase reactions of the ground-state silylidyne radical (SiH; X(2)Π) with methylacetylene (CH3CCH; X(1)A1) and D4-methylacetylene (CD3CCD; X(1)A1) were explored at collision energies of 30 kJ mol(-1) under single-collision conditions exploiting the crossed molecular beam technique and complemented by electronic structure calculations. These studies reveal that the reactions follow indirect scattering dynamics, have no entrance barriers, and are initiated by the addition of the silylidyne radical to the carbon-carbon triple bond of the methylacetylene molecule either to one carbon atom (C1; [i1]/[i2]) or to both carbon atoms concurrently (C1-C2; [i3]). The collision complexes [i1]/[i2] eventually isomerize via ring-closure to the c-SiC3H5 doublet radical intermediate [i3], which is identified as the decomposing reaction intermediate. The hydrogen atom is emitted almost perpendicularly to the rotational plane of the fragmenting complex resulting in a sideways scattering dynamics with the reaction being overall exoergic by -12 ± 11 kJ mol(-1) (experimental) and -1 ± 3 kJ mol(-1) (computational) to form the cyclic 2-methyl-1-silacycloprop-2-enylidene molecule (c-SiC3H4; p1). In line with computational data, experiments of silylidyne with D4-methylacetylene (CD3CCD; X(1)A1) depict that the hydrogen is emitted solely from the silylidyne moiety but not from methylacetylene. The dynamics are compared to those of the related D1-silylidyne (SiD; X(2)Π)-acetylene (HCCH; X(1)Σg(+)) reaction studied previously in our group, and from there, we discovered that the methyl group acts primarily as a spectator in the title reaction. The formation of 2-methyl-1-silacycloprop-2-enylidene under single-collision conditions via a bimolecular gas-phase reaction augments our knowledge of the hitherto poorly understood silylidyne (SiH; X(2)Π) radical reactions with small hydrocarbon molecules leading to the synthesis of organosilicon molecules in cold molecular clouds and in carbon-rich circumstellar envelopes.

Silole (1-silacyclopenta-2,4-diene) was synthesized for the first time by the bimolecular reaction of the simplest silicon-bearing radical, silylidyne (SiH), with 1,3-butadiene (C4 H6 ) in the gas phase under single-collision conditions. The absence of consecutive collisions of the primary reaction product prevents successive reactions of the silole by Diels-Alder dimerization, thus enabling the clean gas-phase synthesis of this hitherto elusive cyclic species from acyclic precursors in a single-collision event. Our method opens up a versatile and unconventional path to access a previously rather obscure class of organosilicon molecules (substituted siloles), which have been difficult to access through classical synthetic methods., (© 2016 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

The crossed molecular beam reactions of the ground-state silylidyne radical (SiH; X(2)Π) with allene (H2CCCH2; X(1)A1) and D4-allene (D2CCCD2; X(1)A1) were carried out at collision energies of 30 kJ mol(-1). Electronic structure calculations propose that the reaction of silylidyne with allene has no entrance barrier and is initiated by silylidyne addition to the π electron density of allene either to one carbon atom (C1/C2) or to both carbon atoms simultaneously via indirect (complex forming) reaction dynamics. The initially formed addition complexes isomerize via two distinct reaction pathways, both leading eventually to a cyclic SiC3H5 intermediate. The latter decomposes through a loose exit transition state via an atomic hydrogen loss perpendicularly to the plane of the decomposing complex (sideways scattering) in an overall exoergic reaction (experimentally: -19 ± 13 kJ mol(-1); computationally: -5 ± 3 kJ mol(-1)). This hydrogen loss yields the hitherto elusive 2-methyl-1-silacycloprop-2-enylidene molecule (c-SiC3H4), which can be derived from the closed-shell cyclopropenylidene molecule (c-C3H2) by replacing a hydrogen atom with a methyl group and the carbene carbon atom by the isovalent silicon atom. The synthesis of the 2-methyl-1-silacycloprop-2-enylidene molecule in the bimolecular gas-phase reaction of silylidyne with allene enriches our understanding toward the formation of organosilicon species in the gas phase of the interstellar medium in particular via exoergic reactions of no entrance barrier. This facile route to 2-methyl-1-silacycloprop-2-enylidene via a silylidyne radical reaction with allene opens up a versatile approach to form hitherto poorly characterized silicon-bearing species in extraterrestrial environments; this reaction class might represent the missing link, leading from silicon-bearing radicals via organosilicon chemistry eventually to silicon-carbon-rich interstellar grains even in cold molecular clouds where temperatures are as low as 10 K.

The reactions of the p-tolyl radical with allene-d4 and methylacetylene-d4 as well as of the p-tolyl-d7 radical with methylacetylene-d1 and methylacetylene-d3 were carried out under single collision conditions at collision energies of 44-48 kJ mol(-1) and combined with electronic structure and statistical (RRKM) calculations. Our experimental results indicated that the reactions of p-tolyl with allene-d4 and methylacetylene-d4 proceeded via indirect reaction dynamics with laboratory angular distributions spanning about 20° in the scattering plane. As a result, the center-of-mass translational energy distribution determined a reaction exoergicity of 149 ± 28 kJ mol(-1) and exhibited a pronounced maximum at around 20 to 30 kJ mol(-1). In addition, the center-of-mass angular flux distribution T(θ) depicted a forward-backward symmetry and indicated geometric constraints upon the decomposing complex(es). Combining with calculations, these results propose that the bicyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 6-methyl-1H-indene (p1) and 5-methyl-1H-indene (p2), are formed under single collision conditions at fractions of at least 85% in both reaction systems. For the p-tolyl-methylacetylene system, experiments with partially deuterated reactants also reveal the formation of a third isomer p5 (1-methyl-4-(1-propynyl)benzene) at levels of 5-10%, highlighting the importance in conducting reactions with partially deuterated reactants to elucidate the underlying reaction pathways comprehensively.

The reactions of the boron monoxide ((11)BO; X(2)Σ(+)) radical with 1,3-butadiene (CH2CHCHCH2; X(1)Ag) and its partially deuterated counterparts, 1,3-butadiene-d2 (CH2CDCDCH2; X(1)Ag) and 1,3-butadiene-d4 (CD2CHCHCD2; X(1)Ag), were investigated under single collision conditions exploiting a crossed molecular beams machine. The experimental data were combined with the state-of-the-art ab initio electronic structure calculations and statistical RRKM calculations to investigate the underlying chemical reaction dynamics and reaction mechanisms computationally. Our investigations revealed that the reaction followed indirect scattering dynamics through the formation of (11)BOC4H6 doublet radical intermediates via the barrierless addition of the (11)BO radical to the terminal carbon atom (C1/C4) and/or the central carbon atom (C2/C3) of 1,3-butadiene. The resulting long-lived (11)BOC4H6 intermediate(s) underwent isomerization and/or unimolecular decomposition involving eventually at least two distinct atomic hydrogen loss pathways to 1,3-butadienyl-1-oxoboranes (CH2CHCHCH(11)BO) and 1,3-butadienyl-2-oxoboranes (CH2C ((11)BO)CHCH2) in overall exoergic reactions via tight exit transition states. Utilizing partially deuterated 1,3-butadiene-d2 and -d4, we revealed that the hydrogen loss from the methylene moiety (CH2) dominated with 70 ± 10% compared to an atomic hydrogen loss from the methylidyne group (CH) of only 30 ± 10%; these data agree nicely with the theoretically predicted branching ratio of 80% versus 19%.

Crossed molecular beam reactions of p-tolyl (C7H7) plus 1,3-butadiene (C4H6), p-tolyl (C7H7) plus 1,3-butadiene-d6 (C4D6), and p-tolyl-d7 (C7D7) plus 1,3-butadiene (C4H6) were carried out under single-collision conditions at collision energies of about 55 kJ mol(-1). 6-Methyl-1,4-dihydronaphthalene was identified as the major reaction product formed at fractions of about 94% with the monocyclic isomer (trans-1-p-tolyl-1,3-butadiene) contributing only about 6%. The reaction is initiated by barrierless addition of the p-tolyl radical to the terminal carbon atom of the 1,3-butadiene via a van der Waals complex. The collision complex isomerizes via cyclization to a bicyclic intermediate, which then ejects a hydrogen atom from the bridging carbon to form 6-methyl-1,4-dihydronaphthalene through a tight exit transition state located about 27 kJ mol(-1) above the separated products. This is the dominant channel under the present experimental conditions. Alternatively, the collision complex can also undergo hydrogen ejection to form trans-1-p-tolyl-1,3-butadiene; this is a minor contributor to the present experiment. The de facto barrierless formation of a methyl-substituted aromatic hydrocarbons by dehydrogenation via a single event represents an important step in the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their partially hydrogenated analogues in combustion flames and the interstellar medium.

The reaction dynamics of boron monoxide ((11)BO; X(2)Σ(+)) with propylene (CH(3)CHCH(2); X(1)A') were investigated under single collision conditions at a collision energy of 22.5 ± 1.3 kJ mol(-1). The crossed molecular beam investigation combined with ab initio electronic structure and statistical (RRKM) calculations reveals that the reaction follows indirect scattering dynamics and proceeds via the barrierless addition of boron monoxide radical with its radical center located at the boron atom. This addition takes place to either the terminal carbon atom (C1) and/or the central carbon atom (C2) of propylene reactant forming (11)BOC(3)H(6) intermediate(s). The long-lived (11)BOC(3)H(6) doublet intermediate(s) underwent unimolecular decomposition involving at least three competing reaction mechanisms via an atomic hydrogen loss from the vinyl group, an atomic hydrogen loss from the methyl group, and a methyl group elimination to form cis-/trans-1-propenyl-oxo-borane (CH(3)CHCH(11)BO), 3-propenyl-oxo-borane (CH(2)CHCH(2)(11)BO), and ethenyl-oxo-borane (CH(2)CH(11)BO), respectively. Utilizing partially deuterated propylene (CD(3)CHCH(2) and CH(3)CDCD(2)), we reveal that the loss of a vinyl hydrogen atom is the dominant hydrogen elimination pathway (85 ± 10%) forming cis-/trans-1-propenyl-oxo-borane, compared to the loss of a methyl hydrogen atom (15 ± 10%) leading to 3-propenyl-oxo-borane. The branching ratios for an atomic hydrogen loss from the vinyl group, an atomic hydrogen loss from the methyl group, and a methyl group loss are experimentally derived to be 26 ± 8%:5 ± 3%:69 ± 15%, respectively; these data correlate nicely with the branching ratios calculated via RRKM theory of 19%:5%:75%, respectively.

We exploited crossed molecular beams techniques and electronic structure calculations to provide compelling evidence that the vinylsulfidoboron molecule (C2H3(11)B(32)S) - the simplest member of hitherto elusive olefinic organo-sulfidoboron molecules (RBS) - can be formed via the gas phase reaction of boron monosulfide ((11)B(32)S) with ethylene (C2H4) under single collision conditions. The reaction mechanism follows indirect scattering dynamics via a barrierless addition of the boron monosulfide radical to the carbon-carbon double bond of ethylene. The initial reaction complex can either decompose to vinylsulfidoboron (C2H3(11)B(32)S) via the emission of a hydrogen atom from the sp(3) hybridized carbon atom, or isomerize via a 1,2-hydrogen shift prior to a hydrogen loss from the terminal carbon atom to form vinylsulfidoboron. Statistical (RRKM) calculations predict branching ratios of 8% and 92% for both pathways leading to vinylsulfidoboron, respectively. A comparison between the boron monosulfide ((11)B(32)S) plus ethylene and the boron monoxide ((11)BO) plus ethylene systems indicates that both reactions follow similar reaction mechanisms involving addition - elimination and addition - hydrogen migration - elimination pathways. Our experimental findings open up a novel pathway to access the previously poorly-characterized class of organo-sulfidoboron molecules via bimolecular gas phase reactions, which are difficult to form through 'classical' organic synthesis.

We probed the reaction of the 4-methylphenyl radical with isoprene under single collision conditions at a collision energy of 58 kJ mol(-1) by exploiting the crossed molecular beam technique. Supported by the electronic structure calculations, the reaction was found to initially lead to a van-der-Waals complex without any barrier which can then isomerize by addition of the 4-methylphenyl radical to any one of the four carbon atoms of the 1,3-butadiene moiety of isoprene. The initial addition products isomerize with formal addition products preferentially to C1 and C4 carbon atoms of the isoprene. These structures further isomerize via hydrogen migration and cyclization; the reaction is terminated by a hydrogen atom elimination from the 4-methylphenyl moiety via tight exit transition states leading to two dimethyl-dihydronaphthalene isomers as the dominating products. This study presents one of the very first bimolecular reactions of the 4-methylphenyl radical with unsaturated hydrocarbons and opens a path for the investigation of this reaction class in future experiments.

The reactions of the 4-tolyl radical (C6H4CH3) and of the D7-4-tolyl radical (C6D4CD3) with 1,2-butadiene (C4H6) have been probed in crossed molecular beams under single collision conditions at a collision energy of about 54 kJ mol(-1) and studied theoretically using ab initio G3(MP2,CC)//B3LYP/6-311G** and statistical RRKM calculations. The results show that the reaction proceeds via indirect scattering dynamics through the formation of a van-der-Waals complex followed by the addition of the radical center of the 4-tolyl radical to the C1 or C3 carbon atoms of 1,2-butadiene. The collision complexes then isomerize by migration of the tolyl group from the C1 (C3) to the C2 carbon atom of the 1,2-butadiene moiety. The resulting intermediate undergoes unimolecular decomposition via elimination of a hydrogen atom from the methyl group of the 1,2-butadiene moiety through a rather loose exit transition state leading to 2-para-tolyl-1,3-butadiene (p4), which likely presents the major reaction product. Our observation combined with theoretical calculations suggest that one methyl group (at the phenyl group) acts as a spectator in the reaction, whereas the other one (at the allene moiety) is actively engaged in the underlying chemical dynamics. On the contrary to the reaction of the phenyl radical with allene, which leads to the formation of indene, the substitution of a hydrogen atom by a methyl group in allene essentially eliminates the formation of bicyclic PAHs such as substituted indenes in the 4-tolyl plus 1,2-butadiene reaction.

The reaction dynamics of the dicarbon radical C2(a(3)Πu/X(1)Σg(+)) in the singlet and triplet state with C4H6 isomers 2-butyne, 1-butyne and 1,2-butadiene were investigated at collision energies of about 26 kJ mol(-1) using the crossed molecular beam technique and supported by ab initio and RRKM calculations. The reactions are all indirect, forming C6H6 complexes through barrierless additions by dicarbon on the triplet and singlet surfaces. Isomerization of the C6H6 reaction intermediate leads to product formation by hydrogen loss in a dicarbon-hydrogen atom exchange mechanism forming acyclic C6H5 reaction products through loose exit transition states in overall exoergic reactions.

We explored the reactions on the phenyl (C6H5; X(2)A1) and phenyl-d5 (C6D5; X(2)A1) radical with 1,2-butadiene (C4H6; X(1)A') at a collision energy of about 52 ± 3 kJ mol(-1) in a crossed molecular beam apparatus. The reaction of phenyl with 1,2-butadiene is initiated by adding the phenyl radical with its radical center to the π electron density at the C1/C3 carbon atom of 1,2-butadiene. Later, the initial collision complexes isomerize via phenyl group migration from the C1/C3 carbon atoms to the C2 carbon atom of the allene moiety of 1,2-butadiene. The resulting intermediate undergoes unimolecular decomposition through hydrogen atom emission from the methyl group of the 1,2-butadiene moiety via a rather loose exit transition state leading to 2-phenyl-1,3-butadiene in an overall exoergic reaction (ΔRG = -72 ± 10 kJ mol(-1)). This finding reveals the strong collision-energy dependence of this system when the data are compared with those of the phenyl radical with 1,2-butadiene previously recorded at collision energies up to 160 kJ mol(-1), with the previous study exhibiting the thermodynamically less stable 1-phenyl-3-methylallene (ΔRG = -33 ± 10 kJ mol(-1)) and 1-phenyl-2-butyne (ΔRG = -24 ± 10 kJ mol(-1)) to be the dominant products.

As a member of the organo sulfidoboron (RBS) family, the hitherto elusive ethynylsulfidoboron molecule (HCCBS) has been formed via the bimolecular reaction of the boron monosulfide radical (BS) with acetylene (C2H2) under single collision conditions in the gas phase, exploiting the crossed molecular beams technique. The reaction mechanism follows indirect dynamics via a barrierless addition of the boron monosulfide radical with its boron atom to the carbon atom of the acetylene molecule, leading to the trans-HCCHBS intermediate. As predicted by ab initio electronic structure calculations, the initial collision complex either isomerizes to its cis-form or undergoes a hydrogen atom migration to form H2CCBS. The cis-HCCHBS intermediate either isomerizes via hydrogen atom shift from the carbon to the boron atom, leading to the HCCBHS isomer, or decomposes to ethynylsulfidoboron (HCCBS). Both H2CCBS and HCCBHS intermediates were predicted to fragment to ethynylsulfidoboron via atomic hydrogen losses. Statistical (RRKM) calculations report yields to form the ethynylsulfidoboron molecule from cis-HCCHBS, H2CCBS, and HCCBHS to be 21%, 7%, and 72%, respectively, under current experimental conditions. Our findings open up an unconventional path to access the previously obscure class of organo sulfidoboron molecules, which are difficult to access through "classical" formation.

Dicarbon (C2 ), the simplest bare carbon molecule, is ubiquitous in the interstellar medium and in combustion flames. A gas-phase synthesis is presented of the benzyl radical (C6 H5 CH2 ) by the crossed molecular beam reaction of dicarbon, C2 (X(1) Σg (+) , a(3) Πu ), with 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene (isoprene; C5 H8 ; X(1) A') accessing the triplet and singlet C7 H8 potential energy surfaces (PESs) under single collision conditions. The experimental data combined with ab initio and statistical calculations reveal the underlying reaction mechanism and chemical dynamics. On the singlet and triplet surfaces, the reactions involve indirect scattering dynamics and are initiated by the barrierless addition of dicarbon to the carbon-carbon double bond of the 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene molecule. These initial addition complexes rearrange via multiple isomerization steps, leading eventually to the formation of C7 H7 radical species through atomic hydrogen elimination. The benzyl radical (C6 H5 CH2 ), the thermodynamically most stable C7 H7 isomer, is determined as the major product., (© 2014 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

We present for the very first time single collision experimental evidence that a methyl-substituted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)-2-methylnaphthalene-can be formed without an entrance barrier via indirect scattering dynamics through a bimolecular collision of two non-PAH reactants: the para-tolyl radical and vinylacetylene. Theory shows that this reaction is initiated by the addition of the para-tolyl radical to either the terminal acetylene carbon (C(4)) or a vinyl carbon (C(1)) leading eventually to two distinct radical intermediates. Importantly, addition at C(1) was found to be barrierless via a van der Waals complex implying this mechanism can play a key role in forming methyl substituted PAHs in low temperature extreme environments such as the interstellar medium and hydrocarbon-rich atmospheres of planets and their moons in the outer Solar System. Both reaction pathways involve a sequence of isomerizations via hydrogen transfer, ring closure, ring-opening and final hydrogen dissociation through tight exit transition states to form 2-methylnaphthalene in an overall exoergic process. Less favorable pathways leading to monocyclic products are also found. Our studies predict that reactions of substituted aromatic radicals can mechanistically deliver odd-numbered PAHs which are formed in significant quantities in the combustion of fossil fuels.

The crossed molecular beam reaction of boron monoxide ((11)BO; X(2)Σ(+)) with dimethylacetylene (CH3CCCH3; X(1)A(1g)) was investigated at a collision energy of 23.9 ± 1.5 kJ mol(-1). The scattering dynamics were suggested to be indirect (complex forming reaction) and were initiated by the addition of (11)BO(X(2)Σ(+)) with the radical center located at the boron atom to the π electron density at the acetylenic carbon-carbon triple bond without entrance barrier leading to cis-trans(11)BOC4H6 doublet radical intermediates. cis-(11)BOC4H6 underwent cis-trans isomerization followed by unimolecular decomposition via a methyl group (CH3) loss forming 1-propynyl boron monoxide (CH3CC(11)BO) in an overall exoergic reaction (experimental: -91 ± 22 kJ mol(-1); theoretical: -105 ± 9 kJ mol(-1); NIST: -104 ± 12 kJ mol(-1)) via a tight exit transition state; trans-(11)BOC4H6 was found to lose a methyl group instantaneously. Neither atomic nor molecular hydrogen loss pathways were detectable. The experimental finding of an exclusive methyl loss pathway gains full support from our computational study predicting a methyl group versus atomic hydrogen loss branching ratio of 99.99% to 0.01% forming 1-propynyl boron monoxide (CH3CC(11)BO) and 1-methyl-propadienyl boron monoxide (CH3((11)BO)CCCH2), respectively.

Organyl oxoboranes (RBO) are valuable reagents in organic synthesis due to their role in Suzuki coupling reactions. However, organyl oxoboranes (RBO) are only found in trimeric forms (RBO3) commonly known as boronic acids or boroxins; obtaining their monomers has proved a complex endeavor. Here, we demonstrate an oligomerization-free formation of organyl oxoborane (RBO) monomers in the gas phase by a radical substitution reaction under single-collision conditions in the gas phase. Using the cross molecular beams technique, phenyl oxoborane (C6H5BO) is formed through the reaction of boronyl radicals (BO) with benzene (C6H6). The reaction is indirect, initially forming a van der Waals complex that isomerizes below the energy of the reactants and eventually forming phenyl oxoborane by hydrogen emission in an overall exoergic radical-hydrogen atom exchange mechanism.

The crossed molecular beam reactions of dicarbon, C2(X(1)Σg(+), a(3)Πu), with propene (C3H6; X(1)A') and with the partially deuterated D3 counterparts (CD3CHCH2, CH3CDCD2) were conducted at collision energies of about 21 kJ mol(-1) under single collision conditions. The experimental data were combined with ab initio and statistical (RRKM) calculations to reveal the underlying reaction mechanisms. Both on the singlet and triplet surfaces, the reactions involve indirect scattering dynamics and are initiated by the addition of the dicarbon reactant to the carbon-carbon double bond of propene. These initial addition complexes rearrange via multiple isomerization steps leading ultimately via atomic hydrogen elimination from the former methyl and vinyl groups to the formation of 1-vinylpropargyl and 3-vinylpropargyl. Both triplet and singlet methylbutatriene species were identified as important reaction intermediates. On the singlet surface, the unimolecular decomposition of the reaction intermediates was found to be barrier-less, whereas on the triplet surface, tight exit transition states were involved. In combustion flames, both radicals can undergo a hydrogen-atom assisted isomerization leading ultimately to the thermodynamically most stable cyclopentadienyl isomer. Alternatively, in a third body process, a subsequent reaction of 1-vinylpropargyl or 3-vinylpropargyl radicals with the propargyl radical might yield to the formation of styrene (C6H5C2H3) in an entrance barrier-less reaction under combustion-like conditions. This presents a strong alternative to the formation of styrene via the reaction of phenyl radicals with ethylene, which is affiliated with an entrance barrier of about 10 kJ mol(-1).

The gas-phase reaction of boron monoxide ((11)BO; X(2)Σ(+)) with methylacetylene (CH3CCH; X(1)A1) was investigated experimentally using crossed molecular beam technique at a collision energy of 22.7 kJ mol(-1) and theoretically using state of the art electronic structure calculation, for the first time. The scattering dynamics were found to be indirect (complex forming reaction) and the reaction proceeded through the barrier-less formation of a van-der-Waals complex ((11)BOC3H4) followed by isomerization via the addition of (11)BO(X(2)Σ(+)) to the C1 and/or C2 carbon atom of methylacetylene through submerged barriers. The resulting (11)BOC3H4 doublet radical intermediates underwent unimolecular decomposition involving three competing reaction mechanisms via two distinct atomic hydrogen losses and a methyl group elimination. Utilizing partially deuterated methylacetylene reactants (CD3CCH; CH3CCD), we revealed that the initial addition of (11)BO(X(2)Σ(+)) to the C1 carbon atom of methylacetylene was followed by hydrogen loss from the acetylenic carbon atom (C1) and from the methyl group (C3) leading to 1-propynyl boron monoxide (CH3CC(11)BO) and propadienyl boron monoxide (CH2CCH(11)BO), respectively. Addition of (11)BO(X(2)Σ(+)) to the C1 of methylacetylene followed by the migration of the boronyl group to the C2 carbon atom and/or an initial addition of (11)BO(X(2)Σ(+)) to the sterically less accessible C2 carbon atom of methylacetylene was followed by loss of a methyl group leading to the ethynyl boron monoxide product (HCC(11)BO) in an overall exoergic reaction (78 ± 23 kJ mol(-1)). The branching ratios of these channels forming CH2CCH(11)BO, CH3CC(11)BO, and HCC(11)BO were derived to be 4 ± 3%, 40 ± 5%, and 56 ± 15%, respectively; these data are in excellent agreement with the calculated branching ratios using statistical RRKM theory yielding 1%, 38%, and 61%, respectively.

Designs of a quadrupole ion trap (QIT) as a source for time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometry are evaluated for mass resolution, ion trapping, and laser activation of trapped ions. Comparisons are made with the standard hyperbolic electrode ion trap geometry for TOF mass analysis in both linear and reflectron modes. A parallel-plate design for the QIT is found to give significantly improved TOF mass spectrometer performance. Effects of ion temperature, trapped ion cloud size, mass, and extraction field on mass resolution are investigated in detail by simulation of the TOF peak profiles. Mass resolution (m/Δm) values of several thousand are predicted even at room temperature with moderate extraction fields for the optimized design. The optimized design also allows larger radial ion collection size compared with the hyperbolic ion trap, without compromising the mass resolution. The proposed design of the QIT also improves the ion-laser interaction volume and photon collection efficiency for fluorescence measurements on trapped ions., (Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Pulsed extraction techniques are investigated for a quadrupole ion trap (QIT) interfaced to a linear time-of-flight (TOF) mass analyzer. A nonfocusing short-pulse mode of operation is developed and characterized. The short-pulse mode creates a near-monoenergetic ion packet, which is useful for reaction kinetics experiments and for making diagnostic measurements of the ion cloud size in the trap. Monopolar and bipolar pulsing modes, with the voltage pulses applied to one or both QIT endcaps to extract the ions into the TOF region, are compared. Ion TOF peak distributions are characterized experimentally and by ion trajectory simulations. Also, first-order spatial (Wiley-McLaren) focusing of ions is characterized for the conventional long-pulse extraction mode. The nonparallel fields in the QIT, which serves as the first acceleration region in the linear-TOF mass spectrometer, are shown to degrade spatial focusing and mass resolution.

The fluorescence and photodissociation of rhodamine 575 cations confined to a quadrupole ion trap are observed during laser irradiation at 488 nm. The kinetics of photodissociation is measured by time-dependent mass spectra and time-dependent fluorescence. The rhodamine ion signal and fluorescence decay are studied as functions of buffer gas pressure, laser fluence, and irradiation time. The decay rates of the ions in the mass spectra agree with decay rates of the fluorescence. Some of the fragment ions also fluoresce and further dissociate. The photodissociation rate is found to depend on the incident laser fluence and buffer gas pressure. The implications of rapid absorption/fluorescence cycling for photodissociation of dye-labeled biomolecular ions under continuous irradiation are discussed.