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We assembled genome-wide data from 271 ancient Iberians, of whom 176 are from the largely unsampled period after 2000 BCE, thereby providing a high-resolution time transect of the Iberian Peninsula. We document high genetic substructure between northwestern and southeastern hunter-gatherers before the spread of farming. We reveal sporadic contacts between Iberia and North Africa by ~2500 BCE and, by ~2000 BCE, the replacement of 40% of Iberia's ancestry and nearly 100% of its Y-chromosomes by people with Steppe ancestry. We show that, in the Iron Age, Steppe ancestry had spread not only into Indo-European-speaking regions but also into non-Indo-European-speaking ones, and we reveal that present-day Basques are best described as a typical Iron Age population without the admixture events that later affected the rest of Iberia. Additionally, we document how, beginning at least in the Roman period, the ancestry of the peninsula was transformed by gene flow from North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean., J.M.F., F.J.L.-C., J.I.M., F.X.O., J.D., and M.S.B. were supported by HAR2017-86509-P, HAR2017-87695-P, and SGR2017-11 from the Generalitat de Catalunya, AGAUR agency. C.L.-F. was supported by Obra Social La Caixa and by FEDER-MINECO (BFU2015- 64699-P). L.B.d.L.E. was supported by REDISCO-HAR2017-88035-P (Plan Nacional I+D+I, MINECO). C.L., P.R., and C.Bl. were supported by MINECO (HAR2016-77600-P). A.Esp., J.V.-V., G.D., and D.C.S.-G. were supported by MINECO (HAR2009-10105 and HAR2013-43851-P). D.J.K. and B.J.C. were supported by NSF BCS-1460367. K.T.L., A.W., and J.M. were supported by NSF BCS-1153568. J.F.-E. and J.A.M.-A. were supported by IT622-13 Gobierno Vasco, Diputación Foral de Álava, and Diputación Foral de Gipuzkoa. We acknowledge support from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (PTDC/EPH-ARQ/4164/2014) and the FEDER-COMPETE 2020 project 016899. P.S. was supported by the FCT Investigator Program (IF/01641/2013), FCT IP, and ERDF (COMPETE2020 – POCI). M.Si. and K.D. were supported by a Leverhulme Trust Doctoral Scholarship awarded to M.B.R. and M.P. D.R. was supported by an Allen Discovery Center grant from the Paul Allen Foundation, NIH grant GM100233, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. V.V.-M. and W.H. were supported by the Max Planck Society.

Hay una cuestión que debe dilucidarse en el presente trabajo: la problemática de la presencia del mal en el héroe trágico. Parece que la esencia de la tragedia moderna áurea radica en la elección, en el albedrío, en la voluntad deliberada, no en la predestinación. Esto es nuestro tema. Arnold Hauser habla de la tragedia de carácter,1 lo cual marca una conducta dada como inclinación hacia la pasión y el pecado. Esto hay que entenderlo como condición característica, definida por una pasión alienante que lo orilla a la catástrofe. Su función dependiente en la trama genera un paradigma en la edificación del concepto de lo trágico, o sea, aquellos elementos del protagonista que ayudan a configurarlo y en cuyo mecanismo se apoya para llevarse a cabo. Esto obedece a un entramado temático, que se ordena predominantemente en la dualidad conflictiva e inseparable de los opuestos: gobierno de sí mismo/alienación pasional; tal sirve como eje organizador en la configuración de la trama, acción y construcción de la personalidad y actitud trágica del personaje. La pugna entre el obrar “bien” (con sensatez y sutileza adecuadas, guiado por la enseñanza del neoestoicismo como guía espiritual y conductual, la cual aboga por la prudencia en el actuar asesorado por la razón y la fe) y el obedecer a la pasión, y su irremediable caída en el yerro trágico (la actitud violenta que involucra la acción negativa en detrimento del orden social, familiar y religioso, y la inclinación al pecado), la suma de estos componentes configura lo que conviene a la formación de la tragedia, como lugar propicio y de características adecuadas para la concepción del aparato trágico, o sea, la construcción del personaje concerniente al género. El mal depende de la libertad (tema recurrente en Calderón) y es parte sustancial de la construcción del carácter del personaje trágico, en la medida en que éste adquiere autonomía. En la decisión libre reside la esencia de la elección nociva. Aunque las obras del denominado Siglo de Oro están fuertemente imbuidas por la ideología de la religión católica y la pugna constante entre las fuerzas sobrenaturales del bien y del mal, entre Dios y el Diablo, Calderón nos sugiere un tipo de personaje, que aunque no está exento de un fuerte rasgo religioso en su actuación, lo que lo define es la libertad y sus decisiones. El tema del mal es una constante que siempre ha preocupado a filósofos y moralistas, artistas y literatos. Se le entiende como un fenómeno inherente a la conducta humana y a la libertad del mismo. Desde la época clásica los pensadores han insistido en el devenir del mal y sus consecuencias en la fortuna del ser humano. Para ejemplificarlo utilizan metáforas y se valen de personajes ficticios, simbólicos y míticos correspondientes a su cultura. El mal es una condición negativa atribuida al ser humano que indica la ausencia o infracción de moral, bondad, caridad o afecto natural por su entorno y quienes les rodean. La maldad determina la ausencia de bondad, opuesto a “lo bueno”, es el valor otorgado a algo que reúne dicha característica, aquello que se aparta de lo lícito u honesto, perpetrando así la calamidad.

This paper presents an overview of the current state of research on Roman, Late Antique and medieval agriculture in the Iberian Peninsula through the study of archaeobotanical samples (seeds and fruits) collected on a large number of rural and urban sites spread throughout Iberia's geography. It includes published and unpublished data. The plant taxa of economic interest are grouped into various categories: cereals, cereal chaff, legumes, domesticated fruits, oil/fibre plants, condiments and spices, and wild species. According to the data, naked wheats and hulled barley are the dominant cereal species throughout the Iberian Peninsula. There are, nonetheless, particularities like the prevalence of hulled wheats (mainly emmer and spelt) in the North-west. Cultivated fruits also show a great diversity, and new species such as Morus nigra or Prunus armeniaca appear for the first time in the archaeobotanical record. There are also novelties regarding herbs and spices., The contributions of L. Peña-Chocarro and G. Pérez Jordà are within the framework of the project FRUITFUL: La introducción y el desarrollo de la arboricultura en la Península Ibérica (HAR2015-64953-P) funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad and coordinated by L. Peña-Chocarro. G. Pérez Jordà's participation is carried out within the post-doctoral contract IJCI-2015-25082 funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad. Natàlia Alonso's participation is within the framework of projects SGR2014-273 and HAR2016-78277-R: Prácticas agroalimentarias, asentamientos y espacios domésticos. Relaciones y evolución en los llanos sur-pirenáicos (III-I milenios ANE), funded by Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad (SGR2014-273 and HAR2016-78277-R) and coordinated by N. Alonso. J.P. Tereso was supported by a Post-doc grant (SFRH/BPD/88250/2012) from Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologi

The multiple archaeobotanical studies from the east Iberian Peninsula from 2800 cal. BC to 200 BC have provided around twenty wild fruit taxa of varying importance. The aim of this work is to present these taxa and analyse the most important wild fruits, some of them being cultivated since the First Iron Age. Considering sites with comparable sampling methods, a quantitative difference is not observed between wild species exploited in the several life zones represented in this synthesis: Thermo-, Meso-, Supra- and Montane-Mediterranean zones. Three taxa are common in the three life zones considered: Quercus sp., Sambucus sp. and Rubus sp. More thermophilic taxa, Ficus carica and Olea europaea, are present in the two lower zones, although their values decrease to the north we go and with height, in contrast to what happens with Vitis vinifera. The exploitation of wild resources as a food supplement, in addition to other uses, developed during the 2600 years with several differences. These differences are explained in part by the plants that grow in each of the territories and in part by the organization of the human groups and the forms of land exploitation. Protohistoric human groups would have exploited nearby resources as in the previous periods, and all data confirm the continuity of this fundamental activity. However, gathering seems to have had a fairly small economic importance when considering the low rates of ubiquity of these plants in contrast to those of staple crops. The participation of Natàlia Alonso in this work was supported by the projects HAR2012-36877 and SGR2014-273.