Search

Podogymnura, a Philippine endemic genus of gymnures (“soft-furred hedgehogs”), has been known previously only from the highlands of central Mindanao (P. truei truei and P. t. minima) and from two small islands off the northeast tip of Mindanao (P. aureospinula). Based on a combination of mitochondrial genetic and qualitative and quantitative morphological data, we recognize P. minima, formerly considered a subspecies of P. truei, as a distinct species. We also recognize specimens from two little-studied montane regions of southeastern Mindanao, Mt. Hamiguitan and Mt. Kampalili, as a distinctive new species, P. intermedia n. sp. We estimate that dispersal of a common ancestor from Borneo to Mindanao ca. 1.9 to 3.5 Ma gave rise to Podogymnura, followed by speciation within Mindanao beginning 0.53 to 0.97 Ma. These results further increase the rich diversity of mammals on Mindanao, and underscore the importance of the eastern Mindanao highlands as a likely important but little-studied center of Philippine mammalian diversity.

The murine genus Rhynchomys includes the large-bodied Philippine “shrew-rats,” highly specialized members of the vermivorous clade of Philippine murids. Four species are recognized, all of which are endemic to Luzon Island: R. soricoides from mountains within the Central Cordillera, R. isarogensis from Mt. Isarog on the Bicol Peninsula, R. banahao from Mt. Banahaw in south-central Luzon, and R. tapulao from Mt. Tapulao in the Zambales Mountains. Field surveys in 2006 and 2008 revealed two additional populations of Rhynchomys, one from Mt. Labo (1,544 m), a dormant stratovolcano at the base of the Bicol Peninsula, the other from Mt. Mingan (1,901 m), the highest peak in the central Sierra Madre of east-central Luzon. Assessment of external and craniodental features of available specimens from throughout Luzon support our description of the populations on Mt. Labo and Mt. Mingan as new species. All species of Rhynchomys are restricted to high-elevation, montane, and mossy forest habitats, separated by intervening lowlands. These discoveries highlight the importance of isolated highland areas in the historical diversification of Southeast Asian murines, and as current centers of endemism.

Bats of the genus Kerivoula (Mammalia, Chiroptera) are widespread in the Philippines with four reported species, but have been poorly known due to a paucity of specimens. We provide the first molecular phylogeny for Philippine Kerivoula, which supports the existence of four distinct clades that we treat as species (K. hardwickii, K. papillosa, K. pellucida, and K. whiteheadi); these four overlap broadly geographically. Each of these may be recognized on the basis of cytochrome b sequences and external and craniodental morphology. Detailed examination of K. pellucida shows little geographic differentiation within the Philippines, but they differ subtly from those on the Sunda Shelf. We consider K. whiteheadi to be composed of four recognizable clades, each restricted to a geographic region within the Philippines. We consider K. bicolor, from peninsular Thailand, and K. pusilla, from Borneo, to be distinct from K. whiteheadi. Our data indicate the presence of two species within the Philippines currently lumped as K. hardwickii; further study of these is needed. A calibrated phylogeny suggests that Kerivoula began arriving in the Philippines about 10 MYA, with each of the four current lineages arriving independently.

A 2007 survey of small mammals on Mt. Mantalingahan (2,086 m elevation), southern Palawan Island, Philippines, obtained specimens of a distinctive, previously unknown shrew (Soricidae). We describe these specimens as representing a new, monotypic genus and species, Palawanosorex muscorum. The new species was common on Mt. Mantalingahan from 1,550 to 1,950 m (near the peak) but was not detected from 700 to 1,300 m elevation. The previously known native, syntopic shrew, Crocidura palawanensis, has a slender body, slender fore and hind feet, and a long, thin tail with a few long bristles. In contrast, the new species has a stout body, broad fore feet, long claws, and a short tail covered by short, dense fur but no bristles. The dental formula traditionally used would result in assignment of the new species to Suncus, but several distinctive external and cranial features are present, and phylogenetic analyses of thousands of ultraconserved elements suggest P. muscorum is sister to most other Crocidurinae, a clade represented throughout Southeast Asia but numerically dominated by African species. The new species is a distant relative of Suncus murinus (the type species of Suncus) and all other known Southeast Asian species, including the only other shrew known to occur on Palawan (Crocidura batakorum). A time-calibrated phylogenetic analysis estimates divergence between Palawanosorex and its closest known relatives at approximately 10 Ma.

We describe a new species of Batomys from Mt. Isarog, southern Luzon. Morphological and genetic studies of newly obtained specimens of Batomys granti from the type locality on Mt. Data and other high mountains in the Central Cordillera of northern Luzon, and previously referred specimens from Mt. Isarog on the southern peninsula of Luzon, support the separation of the population from Mt. Isarog as a distinct species that is sister to B. granti and demonstrate the existence of B. granti as a widespread species in the Cordillera. The new species occurs only in montane and mossy forest from 1350 m to 1800 m, and is separated from the nearest known population of B. granti by about 450 km. Limited ecological data indicate that it is a nocturnal herbivore. Recognition of this species raises the number of native murid species on Luzon to 44, and the number of species in the endemic Philippine cloud-rat clade to 18. The new species occurs within a national park that is not currently under threat.

Aim Our aims were to document the extent of diversification in an endemic clade of small mammals (Apomys, subgenus Megapomys) on a large oceanic island and to test whether speciation occurred primarily (1) along isolated elevational gradients or (2) among montane areas, as would be expected if diversification were driven by glacial cycles. Location The Philippine archipelago, particularly Luzon Island and two smaller adjacent islands (Mindoro and Lubang). Methods We analysed newly generated nuclear DNA sequences from five unlinked genes and mitochondrial cytochrome b using concatenation (likelihood and Bayesian) and coalescent-based methods to estimate the species tree for all 13 species. We tested a priori models of speciation using both topological constraints and reconstructed elevational ranges of ancestors. Results All individual gene trees recovered at least four of the morphologically defined Megapomys species as monophyletic, while the concatenated approaches recovered all 13 species as monophyletic. Each species was confined to a single mountain range or off-shore island. Most mountain ranges had two species, but these species pairs usually were not sisters. Megapomys originated at medium to high elevation followed by three transitions into lower elevations and possibly one to high elevation. Both a priori models of speciation (elevational gradient and glacial cycle) were rejected by topology tests. The speciation rate was approximately constant through time. Main conclusions Nuclear sequence data strongly corroborated the species status of recently described taxa. A well-supported phylogeny showed that Megapomys diversified by splitting into a predominantly high-elevation clade and an entirely low-elevation clade. Neither adaptation along elevational gradients on single mountain ranges nor vicariance of high-elevation species following glacial cycle-induced dispersals fitted the data. Rather, the most likely process explaining species distributions is repeated colonization of isolated mountain ranges by distantly related species.

We describe and name three new species of Musseromys from the mountains of northern Luzon based on morphological and DNA sequence data. Previously, Musseromys was known only from one species from the lowlands of central Luzon. These are the smallest-known members of the cloud rat clade of endemic Philippine murids, weighing only 15–22 g, an order of magnitude smaller than the previously smallest known members of the clade (Carpomys spp.), and more than two orders of magnitude smaller than the largest members (Phloeomys spp.). These discoveries raise the number of native murids documented on Luzon to 43, 93% of which are endemic, and 88% of which are members of two endemic Philippine clades. Musseromys is inferred to have originated in montane habitats, probably in the Central Cordillera of northern Luzon, with movement to two other areas on Luzon, one in montane habitat and one in lowland habitat, associated with the speciation process.

We describe two new species of mice of the endemic Philippine genus Apomys, subgenus Megapomys. One is from Lubang Island, a small oceanic island off the southwest coast of Luzon, and the other is from Mt. Irid, a peak in the Southern Sierra Madre that lies northeast of Manila on Luzon Island. We also report the first specimens of Apomys sacobianus to be seen since the holotype was captured in 1956 at the foot of Mt. Pinatubo; our specimens were obtained subsequent to the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991, demonstrating the continued existence of this species. Speciation within Apomys (Megapomys) has contributed substantially to the high level of mammalian diversity and fine-scaled endemism observed on Luzon and adjacent Philippine islands.

The development of meaningful models of species richness dynamics in island ecosystems requires accurate measurement of existing biodiversity. To test the assumption that mammalian diversity on tropical oceanic islands is well documented, we conducted a 12-year intensive survey of the native mammal fauna on Luzon Island, a large (ca. 103,000 km2), mostly volcanic island in the Philippines, which was thought to be well known. Prior to the start of our study in 2000, 28 native, non-flying mammals had been documented, and extrapolation from prior discoveries indicated that the rate of discovery of new species was steady but low. From 2000 to 2012, we surveyed non-flying mammals at 17 locations and discovered at least 28 additional species, doubling the number known. Nearly all of the new species are restricted to a single mountain or mountain range, most of which had not been sampled previously, thus also doubling the number of local centers of endemism within Luzon from four to eight. The number of species on a mountain is strongly correlated with the elevation of the peak, and the number of endemic species on a mountain range is strongly correlated with the maximum elevation of the range. All 28 of the new species, and 20 of the species discovered prior to 2000, are members of two morphologically and ecologically diverse endemic clades (“cloud rats” and “earthworm mice”), which strongly implies that species richness has primarily been the product of speciation within the island. We reject the general assumption that mammals on tropical oceanic islands are sufficiently well known that analysis and modeling of the dynamics of species richness may be conducted with precision. In the development of conceptual biogeographic models and implementation of effective conservation strategies, existing estimates of species richness, levels of endemism, and the number of subcenters of endemism should be actively reassessed and verified through robust field, museum, and laboratory studies.

Shrew mice of the genus Archboldomys are poorly known members of an endemic clade of vermivorous/insectivorous murid rodents confined to Luzon Island, Philippines. Three species of these small, ground-living, diurnal mice were previously known, all from a handful of specimens from a few localities. The pattern of morphological and genetic differentiation among additional specimens of shrew mice from our recent field surveys in the Central Cordillera and Sierra Madre mountains of Luzon document the presence of two distinct species groups within Archboldomys as previously defined, as well as three new species. Gene-sequence data from the mitochondrial cytochrome b and nuclear IRBP genes confirm the existence of six distinct species, but also show that Archboldomys, as previously defined, is composed of two clades that are not sister taxa. Reevaluation of the presumed morphological synapomorphies among these shrew mice, together with analyses of karyological and gene-sequence data, support the follo...

We used a combination of capture methods—harp traps, a tunnel trap, and mist nets—to sample the bat assemblage at two locations (disturbed lowland forest at 620 m and old-growth montane forest at 1450 m) on Mount Banahaw, Luzon Island, Philippines. We placed harp traps and mist nets on ridges and across trails and streams in ravines. The tunnel trap was placed over streams. Over 13 nights, we captured 300 individuals representing 23 species, including two possibly undescribed rhinolophid species. Seventy percent of all mist net captures were frugivores (family Pteropodidae), 95% of harp trap captures were members of the narrow-space insectivore ensemble (the families Rhinolophidae and Hipposideridae and the vespertilionid Kerivoula whiteheadi), and 89% of all bats captured in the tunnel trap were edge-and-gap insectivores, comprising vespertilionids, excluding the subfamily Kerivoulinae. In the lowland forest location, harp traps set along a ridge captured 10 times as many bats as an equal number...

We surveyed non-volant mammals in montane (1300 and 1400 m) and mossy forest (1500 and 1550 m) on Mount Cetaceo in the northern Sierra Madre of northeast Luzon in 2004 and 2005. We recorded a total of 12 species of mammals, including one shrew (Soricidae), seven murid rodents (Muridae), one deer (Cervidae), one wild pig (Suidae), one macaque (Cercopithecidae), and one civet (Viverridae). In this paper, we present the first ecological data on two recently discovered species endemic to northeast Luzon, Archboldomys musseri and Apomys sierrae. We captured only three species at 1300 m; captured five species at 1400 m; captured or inferred six species at 1500 m; and documented four species at 1550 m. Combined with an earlier study at 960 m (3 species), these results imply that species richness might increase from the lowlands to ca. 1500 m. The small number of sampling localities prevented strong statistical inference, but percent trap success with roasted coconut bait declined with increased elevatio...

We conducted an elevational transect survey of mammals on the highest peak in the Mingan Mountains of Aurora and Nueva Ecija provinces in the central Sierra Madre Range of Luzon from May to August 2006 and documented 35 species of mammals. These included one shrew (Soricidae), six fruit bats (Pteropodidae), one ghost bat (Megadermatidae), three horseshoe bats (Rhinolophidae), three roundleaf bats (Hipposideridae), four evening bats (Vespertilionidae), one macaque (Cercopithecidae), 12 mice and rats (Muridae), two civets (Viverridae), one wild pig (Suidae), and one deer (Cervidae). Our survey of this small, poorly known mountain range included the discovery of two new species of forest mice (Apomys), a new species of shrew-mouse (Archboldomys), a probable new species of shrew-rat (Rhynchomys), and an unidentified species of tube-nosed bat (Murina). Species richness of bats decreased with increasing elevation, whereas that for native non-volant small mammals increased with increasing elevation up t...

Surveys of small mammals on carefully selected mountains and mountain ranges on Luzon Island, Philippines, since 2000 have led to the discovery of seven previously unknown species of forest mice, Apomys, a remarkable radiation on just a portion of one island. On the basis of morphological and cytochrome (cyt) b DNA sequence data presented here, we propose a new subgenus, Megapomys, to include the large-bodied members of the genus, which form a monophyletic unit of relatively large mice (averaging ca. 65–110 g) with tails about as long as or slightly shorter than the length of the head and body; all of these species forage on the ground. Other members of the genus are assigned to the subgenus Apomys; they are smaller (ca. 18–41 g), have long tails, and usually or often forage above the ground surface. Members of the subgenus Megapomys include four previously recognized species (A. abrae, A. datae, A. gracilirostris, and A. sacobianus) and the seven new species described here (A. aurorae, A. banaha...

Aim Island faunas, particularly those with high levels of endemism, usually are considered especially susceptible to disruption from habitat disturbance and invasive alien species. We tested this general hypothesis by examining the distribution of small mammals along gradients of anthropogenic habitat disturbance in northern Luzon Island, an area with a very high level of mammalian endemism. Location Central Cordillera, northern Luzon Island, Philippines. Methods Using standard trapping techniques, we documented the occurrence and abundance of 16 endemic and two non-native species along four disturbance gradients where habitat ranged from mature forest to deforested cropland. Using regression analysis and AICc for model selection, we assessed the influence of four predictor variables (geographic range, elevational range, body size and diet breadth) on the disturbance tolerance of species. Results Non-native species dominated areas with the most severe disturbance and were rare or absent in mature forest. Native species richness declined with increasing disturbance level, but responses of individual species varied. Elevational range (a measure of habitat breadth) was the best predictor of response of native species to habitat disturbance. Geographic range, body size and diet breadth were weakly correlated. Main conclusions The endemic small mammal fauna of northern Luzon includes species adapted to varying levels of natural disturbance and appears to be resistant to disruption by resident alien species. In these respects, it resembles a diverse continental fauna rather than a depauperate insular fauna. We conclude that the long and complex history of Luzon as an ancient member of the Philippine island arc system has involved highly dynamic ecological conditions resulting in a biota adapted to changing conditions. We predict that similar responses will be seen in other taxonomic groups and in other ancient island arc systems.

A faunal survey conducted along an elevational gradient in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park in northern Luzon Island, Philippines, revealed 15 species of non-flying small mammals. Thirteen, including 1 shrew and 12 murid rodents, are native species endemic to the Philippines, 7 of which are endemic to northern Luzon. Two species are non-native murid rodents that were restricted to disturbed habitats. As seen elsewhere in the Philippines, species richness was greatest in montane and mossy forest habitats at mid to high elevations. Although species-rich, the Balbalasang gradient does not include the full diversity of species known from the Central Cordillera region. Comparative data from sites elsewhere on Luzon reveal that total species richness is a function of local elevation, with more species present in areas with higher mountain peaks. These patterns reflect the fact that diversity of non-flying small mammals is concentrated in highland areas where local assemblages include species that differ in diel activity, spatial habitat use, and diet. Numerically dominant species are members of a single murid clade, and several of these are specialized predators of earthworms. Similarly structured communities in the highlands of Mindanao include species that are only distantly related to those of Luzon. Community convergence is thought to reflect the influence of similar habitat structure, food resource availability, and trophic partitioning in shaping small mammal assemblages.

A new limbless species of scincid lizard of the genus Brachymeles is described from Mt. Labo, Bicol Peninsula, Luzon Island, Philippines. The species was encountered only on this isolated volcanic peak and is conspicuously absent from surrounding, well-surveyed regions of the Bicol Peninsula. The new species is the fourth known limbless species of Brachymeles and the third to be discovered in the Philippines. It is the second longest limbless species of Brachymeles, and, aside from size, can be distinguished from all congeners by features of its external morphology, including both color and scalation. The discovery brings the total number of known Brachymeles species in the Luzon Faunal Region to eleven, including two limbless forms. Isang panibagong uri ng mga bubuling Brachymeles na walang mga paa ang isinalarawan mula sa bundok ng Labo, sa timog-hilagang Luzon, sa Pilipinas. Ang Brachymeles na ito ay matatagpuan lamang sa isang liblib na kabundukan sa Camarines Norte ng Kabikolan. Ito ay pang-apat lamang sa mga walang paang uri ng Brachymeles sa buong mundo at pangatlong natuklasan sa Pilipinas. Ito rin ang pumapangalawa sa haba ng katawan sa mga kauri nitong walang mga paa. Maliban sa sukat ng pangatawan, ito ay makikilala rin mula sa mga kauri nito sa taglay nitong mga katangian sa anyong panglabas, kulay, at pangaliskis. Sa pagkatuklas ng Brachymeles na ito, umabot na sa labing isa ang mga Brachymeles mula sa Luzon Faunal Region, at sa dalawa ang uring walang mga paa na makikita rito.

A single specimen of a small mouse from Mt. Banahaw–San Cristobal Natural Park, Quezon Province, Luzon Island, Philippines, is here described as a new genus and species. It is easily distinguished from all other murids by its small size (15 g), rusty orange fur, mystacial vibrissae that are two-thirds the length of head and body, postocular patch of bare skin with long vibrissae arising within it, long tail with elongated hairs only on the posterior quarter, ovate ears, procumbent incisors that are deeply notched at the tip, and other distinctive characters. Both morphological and molecular data (from two nuclear genes) indicate that the new taxon is a member of the endemic Philippine clade of “giant cloud rats,” some of which weigh up to 2.6 kg. It is most closely related to the genus Carpomys, which includes the smallest previously known member of the clade (ca. 125 g), but differs from it in many features. The discovery of this new taxon reveals an even greater degree of diversification within...

In 2004 and 2005, we conducted a survey of the small mammals on Mt. Tapulao (=Mt. High Peak, 2037 m) in the Zambales Mountains, Luzon Island, Philippines in order to obtain the first information on the mammals of this newly discovered center of endemism. We also tested two hypotheses regarding the relationship of species richness with elevation and the impact of alien species on native mammals. The survey covered five localities representing habitats from regenerating lowland rain forest at 860 m to mossy rain forest near the peak at 2024 m. We recorded 11 species, including 1 native shrew, 1 alien shrew, 8 native rodents, and 1 alien rodent. Two species of Apomys and one species of Rhynchomys are endemic to Zambales; this establishes the Zambales Mountains as a significant center of mammalian endemism. Species richness of native small mammals increased with elevation, from five species in the lowlands at 925 m to seven species in mossy forest at 2024 m; total relative abundance of native small mammals increased from 925 to 1690 m, then declined at 2024 m. Alien small mammals were restricted to highly disturbed areas. Our results support the prediction that maximum species richness of small mammals would occur in lower mossy forest near the peak, not near the center of the gradient. Our results also support the hypothesis that when a diverse community of native Philippine small mammals is present in either old-growth or disturbed forest habitat, “invasive” alien species are unable to penetrate and maintain significant populations in forest.

The number of Rafflesia species (Rafflesiaceae) reported for the Philippines has grown explosively from two before 2002 to ten or eleven presently. We present an overview of the current knowledge of Philippine Rafflesia by providing a comprehensive account of all the recognized species with their taxonomy, distribution and ecology, plus a key and photographs to aid in identification. Their conservation status and that of the rain forest habitats they require is discussed.

Murid rodents of the endemic genus Batomys are diverse and geographically widely distributed in the Philippines. Four species have been recognized: B. dentatus and B. granti on Luzon, B. salomonseni on several islands comprising the Mindanao faunal region, and B. russatus on Dinagat Island. A recent survey of small mammals in eastern Mindanao recorded the presence of Batomys on Mt. Hamiguitan, the only other documented occurrence of this genus on Mindanao Island outside of Mt. Kitanglad. Comparison of external morphology as well as cranial and dental features of the Hamiguitan Batomys with available specimens of congeners indicates that although it is closely allied to B. salomonseni, a number of distinct traits separate it from all its congeners, and we describe it as a new species, B. hamiguitan. This species corroborates the hypothesis that the island of Mindanao is comprised of multiple centers of endemism, of which the southeastern highland of Mt. Hamiguitan is one.

Faunas of old oceanic islands often have extremely high levels of endemism and are considered highly susceptible to anthropogenic disruption. We surveyed the richly endemic small mammal fauna on Mt. Amuyao in the Central Cordillera of northern Luzon Island, Philippines. We tested hypotheses regarding elevational patterns of species richness and community composition, community response to habitat disturbance, and interactions of native and non-native mammals. Our study revealed greater species richness and faunal heterogeneity within the Central Cordillera than previously suspected. We documented 15 native species (14 rodents and 1 insectivore), and two species of non-native rodents. All of the native species are endemic to the Philippines, eight being restricted to the Cordillera. Twelve of the 14 native rodents belong to two ancient endemic clades, indicating that most of the regional diversity is the product of

There is a need for a better understanding of the status of the environment. At the same time, concerns have been raised regarding alienation of the local populace from environmental decisions. One proposed solution is participatory environmental monitoring. When evaluating the usefulness of environmental monitoring, the focus may be on accuracy, as is usually done by scientists, or on efficiency in terms of conservation impact. To test whether investment in participatory biodiversity monitoring makes economic sense for obtaining data for management decisions, we compared the cost efficiency of participatory and conventional biodiversity monitoring methods in Philippine parks. We found that, from a government perspective, investment in monitoring that combines scientific with participatory methods is strikingly more effective than a similar level of investment in conventional scientific methods alone in generating conservation management interventions. Moreover, the local populace seemed to benefit from more secure de facto user rights over land and other resources. Participatory biodiversity monitoring not only represents a cost-effective alternative when conventional monitoring is impossible, but it is also an unexpectedly powerful complementary approach, capable of generating a much higher level of conservation management intervention, where conventional monitoring already takes place.

Rhynchomys belongs to a unique assemblage of Philippine rodents that exhibit a combination of primitive features as well as unique morphological specializations. These nocturnal “shrew-rats,” with highly specialized vermivorous and insectivorous food habits, are endemic to Luzon Island. Analyses of external, cranial, and dental features support the recognition of 4 species, 2 of which are described in this paper. All are restricted to high-elevation habitats, about 1,100 m and above, in montane and mossy forest on northern, western, and southeastern Luzon. Habitat vicariance and subsequent divergence in isolation is the probable mode of diversification in Rhynchomys as well as in other murid clades whose members are restricted to high-elevation habitats. The discovery of locally endemic species of Rhynchomys both confirms the existence of multiple centers of endemism on Luzon and underscores the need to establish and maintain additional protected areas on the island.

A new species of murid rodent belonging to the ‘shrew‐mouse’ genus Archboldomys is described from Kalinga Province in northern Luzon Island, Philippines. This is the third known species of this endemic Philippine genus. The new species is distinguished from its congeners by consistent differences in adult body size, limb and tail proportions, coloration and texture of the pelage, and cranial and dental dimensions. Members of this genus are small, diurnal rodents that feed mainly on earthworms and other soil invertebrates, and occur in high elevation montane and mossy forests habitats. The new species may be restricted to the northern portion of the Cordillera Central, whereas its congeners occur in widely separated highland areas in other portions of Luzon. The fact that similar distribution patterns are seen for members of other endemic genera suggests that habitat vicariance may have shaped much of the diversification of murid rodents on Luzon.

Biodiversity monitoring is criticized for being insufficiently relevant to the needs of managers and ineffective in integrating information into decision-making. We examined conservation management interventions resulting from 2½ years of monitoring by 97 rangers and 350 community volunteers over 1 million hectares of Philippine protected areas. Before this monitoring scheme was established, there was little collaboration between local people and park authorities, and park monitoring was restricted to assessments of the quantity of extracted timber. As a result of the scheme, 156 interventions were undertaken in terrestrial, marine and freshwater ecosystems. In total 98% of these interventions were meaningful and justified, 47% targeted the three most serious threats to biodiversity at the site, and 90% were implemented without external support, suggesting that the interventions were relevant and could be sustained over time at the local level. The mean time from sampling to decision-making was only 97 days, probably because 82% of the interventions were initiated by the same people and institutions that had compiled the underlying data, bypassing potential government bureaucracy. Many of the interventions were jointly undertaken by community members and the management authorities or consisted of local bylaws in support of park management. As a result of the monitoring, indigenous resource use regulation schemes were re-established with government recognition in several parks. The monitoring led to more diversified and realistic management responses on the part of the authorities, including a more socially acceptable and effective approach to enforcement. Of the four field monitoring techniques used, the most participatory one generated more interventions aimed at ensuring a continued resource supply for local communities (χ23 = 69.1, p