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Key points Intentional ingestion of agricultural organophosphorus insecticides is a significant public health issue in rural Asia, causing thousands of deaths annually. Survivors may develop a severe myasthenic syndrome or paralysis, associated with increased plasma levels of cyclohexanol, an insecticide solvent metabolite. Analysis of synaptic transmission at neuromuscular junctions in isolated mouse skeletal muscle, using isometric tension recording and microelectrode recording of endplate voltages and currents, showed that cyclohexanol reduced postsynaptic sensitivity to acetylcholine neurotransmitter (reduced quantal size) while simultaneously enhancing evoked transmitter release (increased quantal content). Patch recording from transfected cell lines, together with molecular modelling, indicated that cyclohexanol causes selective, allosteric antagonism of postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and block of presynaptic K+ -channel function. The data provide insight into the cellular and molecular mechanisms of neuromuscular weakness following intentional ingestion of agricultural organophosphorus insecticides. Our findings also extend understanding of the effects of alcohols on synaptic transmission and homeostatic synaptic function. Abstract Intentional ingestion of agricultural organophosphorus insecticides is a significant public health issue in rural Asia, causing thousands of deaths annually. Some survivors develop a severe, acute or delayed myasthenic syndrome. In animal models, similar myasthenia has been associated with increasing plasma concentration of one insecticide solvent metabolite, cyclohexanol. We investigated possible mechanisms using voltage and current recordings from mouse neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) and transfected human cell lines. Cyclohexanol (10-25 mM) reduced EPP amplitudes by 10-40% and enhanced depression during repetitive (2-20 Hz) stimulation by up to 60%. EPP decay was prolonged more than two fold. MEPPs were attenuated by more than 50%. Cyclohexanol inhibited whole-cell currents recorded from CN21 cells expressing human postjunctional acetylcholine receptors (hnAChR) with an IC50 of 3.74 mM. Cyclohexanol (10-20 mM) also caused prolonged episodes of reduced-current, multi-channel bursting in outside-out patch recordings from hnAChR expressed in transfected HEK293T cells, reducing charge transfer by more than 50%. Molecular modelling indicated cyclohexanol binding (-6kcal.mol-1 ) to a previously-identified alcohol binding site on nicotinic AChR α-subunits. Cyclohexanol also increased quantal content of evoked transmitter release by ∼50%. In perineurial recordings, cyclohexanol selectively inhibited pre-synaptic K+ -currents. Modelling indicated cyclohexanol binding (-3.8 kcal.mole-1 ) to voltage-sensitive K+ -channels at the same site as tetraethylammonium (TEA). TEA (10 mM) blocked K+ -channels more effectively than cyclohexanol but EPPs were more prolonged in 20 mM cyclohexanol. The results explain the pattern of neuromuscular dysfunction following ingestion of organophosphorus insecticides containing cyclohexanol precursors and suggest that cyclohexanol may facilitate investigation of mechanisms regulating synaptic strength at NMJs. Graphical Abstract: Cyclohexanol, the principal metabolite of a common agricultural insecticide solvent cyclohexanone, acts both presynaptically and postsynaptically to impair neuromuscular transmission. [1] Cyclohexanol binds to sites in the pore of voltage-sensitive K-channels that also bind the K+ -channel blocker tetraethylammonium (TEA), with the effect of reducing presynaptic motor nerve terminal K+ -currents and increasing quantal content of evoked transmitter release. [2] Simultaneously, cyclohexanol binds allosterically to an alcohol binding site on postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, altering ligand-gating characteristics and reducing charge transfer. The combined, overall effects of [1] and [2] result in reduced amplitude, prolonged depolarization and enhanced synaptic depression of endplate potentials (EPPs), weakening tetanic tension responses and causing fade in twitch responses to low frequency nerve stimulation. These effects mimic myasthenia or paralysis that occur in self-harming individuals who have swallowed significant quantities of organophosphorus insecticide, a significant public health issue in rural Asia. The present findings therefore provide an explanation for these clinical signs; and indicate potential utility of cyclohexanol in further study of mechanisms of neuromuscular synaptic homeostasis. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

BackgroundMutations in the postsynaptic transmembrane protein neuroligin-3 are highly correlative with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) and intellectual disabilities (IDs). Fear learning is well studied in models of these disorders, however differences in fear response behaviours are often overlooked. We aim to examine fear behaviour and its cellular underpinnings in a rat model of ASD/ID lackingNlgn3.MethodsThis study uses a range of behavioural tests to understand differences in fear response behaviour inNlgn3−/y rats. Following this, we examined the physiological underpinnings of this in neurons of the periaqueductal grey (PAG), a midbrain area involved in flight-or-freeze responses. We used whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from ex vivo PAG slices, in addition to in vivo local-field potential recordings and electrical stimulation of the PAG in wildtype andNlgn3−/y rats. We analysed behavioural data with two- and three-way ANOVAS and electrophysiological data with generalised linear mixed modelling (GLMM).ResultsWe observed that, unlike the wildtype,Nlgn3−/y rats are more likely to response with flight rather than freezing in threatening situations. Electrophysiological findings were in agreement with these behavioural outcomes. We found in ex vivo slices fromNlgn3−/y rats that neurons in dorsal PAG (dPAG) showed intrinsic hyperexcitability compared to wildtype. Similarly, stimulating dPAG in vivo revealed that lower magnitudes sufficed to evoke flight behaviour inNlgn3−/y than wildtype rats, indicating the functional impact of the increased cellular excitability.LimitationsOur findings do not examine what specific cell type in the PAG is likely responsible for these phenotypes. Furthermore, we have focussed on phenotypes in young adult animals, whilst the human condition associated withNLGN3mutations appears during the first few years of life.ConclusionsWe describe altered fear responses inNlgn3−/yrats and provide evidence that this is the result of a circuit bias that predisposes flight over freeze responses. Additionally, we demonstrate the first link between PAG dysfunction and ASD/ID. This study provides new insight into potential pathophysiologies leading to anxiety disorders and changes to fear responses in individuals with ASD.

Cellular and circuit hyperexcitability are core features of fragile X syndrome and related autism spectrum disorder models. However, the cellular and synaptic bases of this hyperexcitability have proved elusive. We report in a mouse model of fragile X syndrome, glutamate uncaging onto individual dendritic spines yields stronger single-spine excitation than wild-type, with more silent spines. Furthermore, fewer spines are required to trigger an action potential with near-simultaneous uncaging at multiple spines. This is, in part, from increased dendritic gain due to increased intrinsic excitability, resulting from reduced hyperpolarization-activated currents, and increased NMDA receptor signaling. Using super-resolution microscopy we detect no change in dendritic spine morphology, indicating no structure-function relationship at this age. However, ultrastructural analysis shows a 3-fold increase in multiply-innervated spines, accounting for the increased single-spine glutamate currents. Thus, loss of FMRP causes abnormal synaptogenesis, leading to large numbers of poly-synaptic spines despite normal spine morphology, thus explaining the synaptic perturbations underlying circuit hyperexcitability., Fragile X syndrome and autism spectrum disorders are associated with circuit hyperexcitability, however, its cellular and synaptic bases are not well understood. Here, the authors report abnormal synaptogenesis with an increased prevalence of polysynaptic spines with normal morphology in a mouse model of fragile X.

Sensory hypersensitivity is a common and debilitating feature of neurodevelopmental disorders such as Fragile X Syndrome (FXS). How developmental changes in neuronal function culminate in network dysfunction that underlies sensory hypersensitivities is unknown. By systematically studying cellular and synaptic properties of layer 4 neurons combined with cellular and network simulations, we explored how the array of phenotypes in Fmr1-knockout (KO) mice produce circuit pathology during development. We show that many of the cellular and synaptic pathologies in Fmr1-KO mice are antagonistic, mitigating circuit dysfunction, and hence may be compensatory to the primary pathology. Overall, the layer 4 network in the Fmr1-KO exhibits significant alterations in spike output in response to thalamocortical input and distorted sensory encoding. This developmental loss of layer 4 sensory encoding precision would contribute to subsequent developmental alterations in layer 4-to-layer 2/3 connectivity and plasticity observed in Fmr1-KO mice, and circuit dysfunction underlying sensory hypersensitivity., Somatosensory hypersensitivity in Fmr-1 knockout mice is thought to arise from an increase in cortical circuit excitability. Here, the authors report that the loss of precision of sensory encoding in the Layer 4 of barrel cortex is the primary developmental circuit alteration that drives the other compensatory circuit dysfunction.

Mutations in the postsynaptic transmembrane protein neuroligin-3 are highly correlative with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) and intellectual disabilities (IDs). Fear learning is well studied in models of these disorders, however differences in fear response behaviours are often overlooked. We aim to examine fear behaviour and its cellular underpinnings in a rat model of ASD/ID lacking Nlgn3.This study uses a range of behavioural tests to understand differences in fear response behaviour in Nlgn3We observed that, unlike the wildtype, Nlgn3Our findings do not examine what specific cell type in the PAG is likely responsible for these phenotypes. Furthermore, we have focussed on phenotypes in young adult animals, whilst the human condition associated with NLGN3 mutations appears during the first few years of life.We describe altered fear responses in Nlgn3

Oligodendrocytes are implicated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis pathogenesis and display transactive response DNA-binding protein-43 (TDP-43) pathological inclusions. To investigate the cell autonomous consequences of TDP-43 mutations on human oligodendrocytes, we generated oligodendrocytes from patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cell lines harbouring mutations in the TARDBP gene, namely G298S and M337V. Through a combination of immunocytochemistry, electrophysiological assessment via whole-cell patch clamping, and three-dimensional cultures, no differences in oligodendrocyte differentiation, maturation or myelination were identified. Furthermore, expression analysis for monocarboxylate transporter 1 (a lactate transporter) coupled with a glycolytic stress test showed no deficit in lactate export. However, using confocal microscopy, we report TDP-43 mutation-dependent pathological mis-accumulation of TDP-43. Furthermore, using in vitro patch-clamp recordings, we identified functional Ca2+-permeable α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor dysregulation in oligodendrocytes. Together, these findings establish a platform for further interrogation of the role of oligodendrocytes and cellular autonomy in TDP-43 proteinopathy.

Fragile X syndrome (FXS), a commonly inherited form of autism and intellectual disability, is associated with emotional symptoms that implicate dysfunction of the amygdala. However, current understanding of the pathogenesis of the disease is based primarily on studies in the hippocampus and neocortex, where FXS defects have been corrected by inhibiting group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). Here we observed that activation, rather than inhibition, of mGluRs in the basolateral amygdala reverses impairments in a rat model of FXS. FXS rats exhibited deficient recall of auditory conditioned fear, which was accompanied by a range of in vitro and in vivo deficits in synaptic transmission and plasticity. We found presynaptic mGluR5 in the amygdala, activation of which reversed deficient synaptic transmission and plasticity, thereby restoring normal fear learning in FXS rats. This highlights the importance of modifying the prevailing mGluR-based framework for therapeutic strategies to include circuit-specific differences in FXS pathophysiology.

N-methyl- d -aspartate receptors (NMDARs) are present in the majority of brain circuits and play a key role in synaptic information transfer and synaptic plasticity. A key element of many brain circuits are inhibitory GABAergic interneurons that in themselves show diverse and cell-type-specific NMDAR expression and function. Indeed, NMDARs located on interneurons control cellular excitation in a synapse-type specific manner which leads to divergent dendritic integration properties amongst the plethora of interneuron subtypes known to exist. In this review, we explore the documented diversity of NMDAR subunit expression in identified subpopulations of interneurons and assess the NMDAR subtype-specific control of their function. We also highlight where knowledge still needs to be obtained, if a full appreciation is to be gained of roles played by NMDARs in controlling GABAergic modulation of synaptic and circuit function. This article is part of the 'Special Issue on Glutamate Receptors – NMDA receptors'.

Oligodendrocytes are implicated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis pathogenesis and display transactive response DNA-binding protein-43 (TDP-43) pathological inclusions. To investigate the cell autonomous consequences of TDP-43 mutations on human oligodendrocytes, we generated oligodendrocytes from patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cell lines harbouring mutations in the

In 1981 Jeff Watkins and Dick Evans wrote what was to become a seminal review on excitatory amino acids (EAAs) and their receptors (Watkins and Evans, 1981). Bringing together various lines of evidence dating back over several decades on: the distribution in the nervous system of putative amino acid neurotransmitters; enzymes involved in their production and metabolism; the uptake and release of amino acids; binding of EAAs to membranes; the pharmacological action of endogenous excitatory amino acids and their synthetic analogues, and notably the actions of antagonists for the excitations caused by both nerve stimulation and exogenous agonists, often using pharmacological tools developed by Jeff and his colleagues, they provided a compelling account for EAAs, especially l -glutamate, as a bona fide neurotransmitter in the nervous system. The rest, as they say, is history, but far from being consigned to history, EAA research is in rude health well into the 21st Century as this series of Special Issues of Neuropharmacology exemplifies. With EAAs and their receptors flourishing across a wide range of disciplines and clinical conditions, we enter into a dialogue with two of the most prominent and influential figures in the early days of EAA research: Jeff Watkins and Dick Evans.

SummaryMutations in the postsynaptic transmembrane protein neuroligin-3 are highly correlative with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) and intellectual disabilities (IDs). Fear learning is well studied in models of these disorders, however differences in fear response behaviours are often overlooked. Whilst examining fear in a rat model of ASD/ID lacking Nlgn3, we observed that they display a greater propensity to exhibit flight responses in contrast to classic freezing seen in wildtypes during fearful situations. Consequently, we examined the physiological underpinnings of this in neurons of the periaqueductal grey (PAG), a midbrain area involved in flight-or-freeze responses. In ex vivo slices from Nlgn3-/y, rats, dorsal PAG (dPAG) neurons showed intrinsic hyperexcitability. Further analysis of this revealed lower magnitude in vivo dPAG stimulation evoked flight behaviour in Nlgn3-/y, rats, indicating the functional impact of the increased cellular excitability. This study provides new insight into potential pathophysiologies leading to emotional disorders in individuals with ASD.

Summary Cellular hyperexcitability is a salient feature of fragile X syndrome animal models. The cellular basis of hyperexcitability and how it responds to changing activity states is not fully understood. Here, we show increased axon initial segment length in CA1 of the Fmr1−/y mouse hippocampus, with increased cellular excitability. This change in length does not result from reduced AIS plasticity, as prolonged depolarization induces changes in AIS length independent of genotype. However, depolarization does reduce cellular excitability, the magnitude of which is greater in Fmr1−/y neurons. Finally, we observe reduced functional inputs from the entorhinal cortex, with no genotypic difference in the firing rates of CA1 pyramidal neurons. This suggests that AIS-dependent hyperexcitability in Fmr1−/y mice may result from adaptive or homeostatic regulation induced by reduced functional synaptic connectivity. Thus, while AIS length and intrinsic excitability contribute to cellular hyperexcitability, they may reflect a homeostatic mechanism for reduced synaptic input onto CA1 neurons., Graphical Abstract, Highlights • Fmr1−/y neurons in CA1 are hyperexcitable, with longer axon initial segments • Pyramidal cells respond more strongly to prolonged depolarization in Fmr1−/y mice • Temporoammonic input to CA1 is reduced in the Fmr1−/y mouse • Cellular hyperexcitability equalizes neuron firing to reduced temporoammonic input, Neuronal hyperexcitability may underlie many features of fragile X syndrome. Booker et al. show that in hippocampal area CA1, pyramidal neurons are hyperexcitable, with longer axon initial segments. This hyperexcitability helps neurons to overcome a strong reduction in synaptic input from the entorhinal cortex, thus homeostatically regulating local network outputs.

Background Fragile X syndrome (FXS), a neurodevelopmental disorder, is a leading monogenetic cause of intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorder. Notwithstanding the extensive studies using rodent and other pre-clinical models of FXS, which have provided detailed mechanistic insights into the pathophysiology of this disorder, it is only relatively recently that human stem cell-derived neurons have been employed as a model system to further our understanding of the pathophysiological events that may underlie FXS. Our study assesses the physiological properties of human pluripotent stem cell-derived cortical neurons lacking fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP). Methods Electrophysiological whole-cell voltage- and current-clamp recordings were performed on two control and three FXS patient lines of human cortical neurons derived from induced pluripotent stem cells. In addition, we also describe the properties of an isogenic pair of lines in one of which FMR1 gene expression has been silenced. Results Neurons lacking FMRP displayed bursts of spontaneous action potential firing that were more frequent but shorter in duration compared to those recorded from neurons expressing FMRP. Inhibition of large conductance Ca2+-activated K+ currents and the persistent Na+ current in control neurons phenocopies action potential bursting observed in neurons lacking FMRP, while in neurons lacking FMRP pharmacological potentiation of voltage-dependent Na+ channels phenocopies action potential bursting observed in control neurons. Notwithstanding the changes in spontaneous action potential firing, we did not observe any differences in the intrinsic properties of neurons in any of the lines examined. Moreover, we did not detect any differences in the properties of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents in any of the lines. Conclusions Pharmacological manipulations can alter the action potential burst profiles in both control and FMRP-null human cortical neurons, making them appear like their genetic counterpart. Our studies indicate that FMRP targets that have been found in rodent models of FXS are also potential targets in a human-based model system, and we suggest potential mechanisms by which activity is altered.

Summary: Inhibition provided by local GABAergic interneurons (INs) activates ionotropic GABAA and metabotropic GABAB receptors (GABABRs). Despite GABABRs representing a major source of inhibition, little is known of their function in distinct IN subtypes. Here, we show that, while the archetypal dendritic-inhibitory somatostatin-expressing INs (SOM-INs) possess high levels of GABABR on their somato-dendritic surface, they fail to produce significant postsynaptic inhibitory currents. Instead, GABABRs selectively inhibit dendritic CaV1.2 (L-type) Ca2+ channels on SOM-IN dendrites, leading to reduced calcium influx and loss of long-term potentiation at excitatory input synapses onto these INs. These data provide a mechanism by which GABABRs can contribute to disinhibition and control the efficacy of extrinsic inputs to hippocampal networks. : Booker et al. show that GABAB receptors are highly expressed on somatostatin interneuron dendrites. Rather than activating Kir3 channels, they preferentially co-cluster with, and negatively couple to, L-type calcium channels inhibiting long-term potentiation at excitatory inputs. Keywords: GABAergic interneurons, feedback inhibition, GABAB receptors, dendrites, Cav1.2 channels, synaptic plasticity, hippocampus, electron microscopy, whole-cell recording, multi-photon imaging

The ability of neurons to produce behaviorally relevant activity in the absence of pathology relies on the fine balance of synaptic inhibition to excitation. In the hippocampal CA1 microcircuit, this balance is maintained by a diverse population of inhibitory interneurons that receive largely similar glutamatergic afferents as their target pyramidal cells, with EPSCs generated by both AMPA receptors (AMPARs) and NMDA receptors (NMDARs). In this study, we take advantage of a recently generated GluN2A-null rat model to assess the contribution of GluN2A subunits to glutamatergic synaptic currents in three subclasses of interneuron found in the CA1 region of the hippocampus. For both parvalbumin-positive and somatostatin-positive interneurons, the GluN2A subunit is expressed at glutamatergic synapses and contributes to the EPSC. In contrast, in cholecystokinin (CCK)-positive interneurons, the contribution of GluN2A to the EPSC is negligible. Furthermore, synaptic potentiation at glutamatergic synapses on CCK-positive interneurons does not require the activation of GluN2A-containing NMDARs but does rely on the activation of NMDARs containing GluN2B and GluN2D subunits.

N‐methyl‐D‐aspartate (NMDA) receptors are glutamate receptors with key roles in synaptic plasticity, due in part to their Mg2+ mediated voltage‐dependence. A large number of genetic variants affecting NMDA receptor subunits have been found in people with a range of neurodevelopmental disorders, including GluN2AN615K (GRIN2A C1845A) in two unrelated individuals with severe epileptic encephalopathy. This missense variant substitutes a lysine in place of an asparagine known to be important for blockade by Mg2+ and other small molecule channel blockers. We therefore measured the impact of GluN2AN615K on a range of NMDA receptor channel blockers using two‐electrode voltage clamp recordings made in Xenopus oocytes. We found that GluN2AN615K resulted in block by Mg2+ 1 mmol/L being greatly reduced (89% vs 8%), block by memantine 10 μmol/L (76% vs 27%) and amantadine 100 μmol/L (45% vs 17%) being substantially reduced, block by ketamine 10 μmol/L being modestly reduced (79% vs 73%) and block by dextromethorphan 10 μmol/L being enhanced (45% vs 55%). Coapplying Mg2+ with memantine or amantadine did not reduce the GluN2AN615K block seen with either small molecule. In addition, we measured single–channel conductance of GluN2AN615K–containing NMDA receptors in outside‐out patches pulled from Xenopus oocytes, finding a 4‐fold reduction in conductance (58 vs 15 pS). In conclusion, the GluN2AN615K variant is associated with substantial changes to important physiological and pharmacological properties of the NMDA receptor. Our findings are consistent with GluN2AN615K having a disease–causing role, and inform potential therapeutic strategies.

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is one of the most common monogenic forms of autism and intellectual disability. Preclinical studies in animal models have highlighted the potential of pharmaceutical intervention strategies for alleviating the symptoms of FXS. However, whether treatment strategies can be tailored to developmental time windows that define the emergence of particular phenotypes is unknown. Similarly, whether a brief, early intervention can have long-lasting beneficial effects, even after treatment cessation, is also unknown. To address these questions, we first examined the developmental profile for the acquisition of associative learning in a rat model of FXS. Associative memory was tested using a range of behavioral paradigms that rely on an animal's innate tendency to explore novelty. Fmr1 knockout (KO) rats showed a developmental delay in their acquisition of object-place recognition and did not demonstrate object-place-context recognition paradigm at any age tested (up to 23 weeks of age). Treatment of Fmr1 KO rats with lovastatin between 5 and 9 weeks of age, during the normal developmental period that this associative memory capability is established, prevents the emergence of deficits but has no effect in wild-type animals. Moreover, we observe no regression of cognitive performance in the FXS rats over several months after treatment. This restoration of the normal developmental trajectory of cognitive function is associated with the sustained rescue of both synaptic plasticity and altered protein synthesis. The findings provide proof of concept that the impaired emergence of the cognitive repertoire in neurodevelopmental disorders may be prevented by brief, early pharmacological intervention.

The in vitro generation of defined cellular populations from induced human pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) provides the opportunity to work routinely with human material and, importantly, allows examination of material derived from patients with clinically and genetically diagnosed disorders. In this regard, the ability to derive oligodendrocytes in vitro represents an important resource to examine human oligodendrocyte-lineage cell biology in normal and disease contexts. Oligodendrocytes undergo characteristic physiological maturation during differentiation in vitro, and patch-clamp electrophysiology allows a detailed examination of maturation state and, potentially, pathologically related variations of ion channel expression and regulation. Here, we detail our methodology to generate oligodendrocyte precursor cells and oligodendrocytes and characterize them electrophysiologically.

The in vitro generation of defined cellular populations from induced human pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) provides the opportunity to work routinely with human material and, importantly, allows examination of material derived from patients with clinically and genetically diagnosed disorders. In this regard, the ability to derive oligodendrocytes in vitro represents an important resource to examine human oligodendrocyte-lineage cell biology in normal and disease contexts. Oligodendrocytes undergo characteristic physiological maturation during differentiation in vitro, and patch-clamp electrophysiology allows a detailed examination of maturation state and, potentially, pathologically related variations of ion channel expression and regulation. Here, we detail our methodology to generate oligodendrocyte precursor cells and oligodendrocytes and characterize them electrophysiologically.

The in vitro derivation of regionally defined human neuron types from patient-derived stem cells is now established as a resource to investigate human development and disease. Characterisation of such neurons initially focused on the expression of developmentally regulated transcription factors and neural markers, in conjunction with the development of protocols to direct and chart the fate of differentiated neurons. However, crucial to the understanding and exploitation of this technology is to determine the degree to which neurons recapitulate the key functional features exhibited by their native counterparts, essential for determining their usefulness in modelling human physiology and disease in vitro. Here, we review the emerging data concerning functional properties of human pluripotent stem cell-derived excitatory cortical neurons, both in the context of maturation and regional specificity. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Previous studies have hypothesized that diverse genetic causes of intellectual disability (ID) and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) converge on common cellular pathways. Testing this hypothesis requires detailed phenotypic analyses of animal models with genetic mutations that accurately reflect those seen in the human condition (i.e., have structural validity) and which produce phenotypes that mirror ID/ASDs (i.e., have face validity). We show that SynGAP haploinsufficiency, which causes ID with co-occurring ASD in humans, mimics and occludes the synaptic pathophysiology associated with deletion of theFmr1gene.Syngap+/−andFmr1−/ymice show increases in basal protein synthesis and metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR)-dependent long-term depression that, unlike in their wild-type controls, is independent of new protein synthesis. Basal levels of phosphorylated ERK1/2 are also elevated inSyngap+/−hippocampal slices. Super-resolution microscopy reveals thatSyngap+/−andFmr1−/ymice show nanoscale alterations in dendritic spine morphology that predict an increase in biochemical compartmentalization. Finally, increased basal protein synthesis is rescued by negative regulators of the mGlu subtype 5 receptor and the Ras–ERK1/2 pathway, indicating that therapeutic interventions for fragile X syndrome may benefit patients with SYNGAP1 haploinsufficiency.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTAs the genetics of intellectual disability (ID) and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are unraveled, a key issue is whether genetically divergent forms of these disorders converge on common biochemical/cellular pathways and hence may be amenable to common therapeutic interventions. This study compares the pathophysiology associated with the loss of fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) and haploinsufficiency of synaptic GTPase-activating protein (SynGAP), two prevalent monogenic forms of ID. We show thatSyngap+/−mice phenocopyFmr1−/ymice in the alterations in mGluR-dependent long-term depression, basal protein synthesis, and dendritic spine morphology. Deficits in basal protein synthesis can be rescued by pharmacological interventions that reduce the mGlu5receptor–ERK1/2 signaling pathway, which also rescues the same deficit inFmr1−/ymice. Our findings support the hypothesis that phenotypes associated with genetically diverse forms of ID/ASDs result from alterations in common cellular/biochemical pathways.

Sensory hypersensitivity is a common and debilitating feature of neurodevelopmental disorders such as Fragile X Syndrome (FXS). However, how developmental changes in neuronal function ultimately culminate in the network dysfunction that underlies sensory hypersensitivities is not known. To address this, we studied the layer 4 barrel cortex circuit inFmr1knockout mice, a critical sensory processing circuit in this mouse model of FXS. By systematically studying cellular and synaptic properties of layer 4 neurons and combining with cellular and network simulations, we explored how the array of phenotypes inFmr1knockout produce circuit pathology during development that result in sensory processing dysfunction. We show that many of the cellular and synaptic pathologies inFmr1knockout mice are antagonistic, mitigating circuit dysfunction, and hence can be regarded as compensatory to the primary pathology. Despite this compensation, the layer 4 network in theFmr1knockout exhibits significant alterations in spike output in response to ascending thalamocortical input that we show results in impaired sensory encoding. We suggest that it is this developmental loss of layer 4 sensory encoding precision that drives subsequent developmental alterations in layer 4 – layer 2/3 connectivity and plasticity observed in theFmr1knockout, and is a critical process producing sensory hypersensitivity.

Key points The kinetics of NMDA receptor (NMDAR) signalling are a critical aspect of the physiology of excitatory synaptic transmission in the brain.Here we develop a mechanistic description of NMDAR function based on the receptor tetrameric structure and the principle that each agonist‐bound subunit must undergo some rate‐limiting conformational change after agonist binding, prior to channel opening.By fitting this mechanism to single channel data using a new MATLAB‐based software implementation of maximum likelihood fitting with correction for limited time resolution, rate constants were derived for this mechanism that reflect distinct structural changes and predict the properties of macroscopic and synaptic NMDAR currents.The principles applied here to develop a mechanistic description of the heterotetrameric NMDAR, and the software used in this analysis, can be equally applied to other heterotetrameric glutamate receptors, providing a unifying mechanistic framework to understanding the physiology of glutamate receptor signalling in the brain. Abstract NMDA receptors (NMDARs) are tetrameric complexes comprising two glycine‐binding GluN1 and two glutamate‐binding GluN2 subunits. Four GluN2 subunits encoded by different genes can produce up to 10 different di‐ and triheteromeric receptors. In addition, some neurological patients contain a de novo mutation or inherited rare variant in only one subunit. There is currently no mechanistic framework to describe tetrameric receptor function that can be extended to receptors with two different GluN1 or GluN2 subunits. Here we use the structural features of glutamate receptors to develop a mechanism describing both single channel and macroscopic NMDAR currents. We propose that each agonist‐bound subunit undergoes some rate‐limiting conformational change after agonist binding, prior to channel opening. We hypothesize that this conformational change occurs within a triad of interactions between a short helix preceding the M1 transmembrane helix, the highly conserved M3 motif encoded by the residues SYTANLAAF, and the linker preceding the M4 transmembrane helix of the adjacent subunit. Molecular dynamics simulations suggest that pre‐M1 helix motion is uncorrelated between subunits, which we interpret to suggest independent subunit‐specific conformational changes may influence these pre‐gating steps. According to this interpretation, these conformational changes are the main determinants of the key kinetic properties of NMDA receptor activation following agonist binding, and so these steps sculpt their physiological role. We show that this structurally derived tetrameric model describes both single channel and macroscopic data, giving a new approach to interpreting functional properties of synaptic NMDARs that provides a logical framework to understanding receptors with non‐identical subunits., Key points The kinetics of NMDA receptor (NMDAR) signalling are a critical aspect of the physiology of excitatory synaptic transmission in the brain.Here we develop a mechanistic description of NMDAR function based on the receptor tetrameric structure and the principle that each agonist‐bound subunit must undergo some rate‐limiting conformational change after agonist binding, prior to channel opening.By fitting this mechanism to single channel data using a new MATLAB‐based software implementation of maximum likelihood fitting with correction for limited time resolution, rate constants were derived for this mechanism that reflect distinct structural changes and predict the properties of macroscopic and synaptic NMDAR currents.The principles applied here to develop a mechanistic description of the heterotetrameric NMDAR, and the software used in this analysis, can be equally applied to other heterotetrameric glutamate receptors, providing a unifying mechanistic framework to understanding the physiology of glutamate receptor signalling in the brain.

Although the underlying neurobiology of major mental illness (MMI) remains unknown, emerging evidence implicates a role for oligodendrocyte-myelin abnormalities. Here, we took advantage of a large family carrying a balanced t(1;11) translocation, which substantially increases risk of MMI, to undertake both diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and cellular studies to evaluate the consequences of the t(1;11) translocation on white matter structural integrity and oligodendrocyte-myelin biology. This translocation disrupts among others theDISC1gene which plays a crucial role in brain development. We show that translocation-carrying patients display significant disruption in white matter integrity compared to familial controls. At a cellular level, we observe dysregulation of key pathways controlling oligodendrocyte development and morphogenesis in induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) case derived oligodendrocytes. This is associated with reduced proliferation and a stunted morphologyin vitro. Further, myelin internodes in a humanized mouse model that recapitulates the human translocation as well as after transplantation of t(1;11) oligodendrocyte progenitors were significantly reduced compared to controls. Thus we provide evidence that the t(1;11) translocation has biological effects at both the systems and cellular level that together suggest oligodendrocyte-myelin dysfunction.

Loss of excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) has been implicated in a number of human diseases including spinocerebellar ataxias, Alzhiemer’s disease and motor neuron disease. EAAT4 and GLAST/EAAT1 are the two predominant EAATs responsible for maintaining low extracellular glutamate levels and preventing neurotoxicity in the cerebellum, the brain region essential for motor control. Here using genetically modified mice we identify new critical roles for EAAT4 and GLAST/EAAT1 as modulators of Purkinje cell (PC) spontaneous firing patterns. We show high EAAT4 levels, by limiting mGluR1 signalling, are essential in constraining inherently heterogeneous firing of zebrin-positive PCs. Moreover mGluR1 antagonists were found to restore regular spontaneous PC activity and motor behaviour in EAAT4 knockout mice. In contrast, GLAST/EAAT1 expression is required to sustain normal spontaneous simple spike activity in low EAAT4 expressing (zebrin-negative) PCs by restricting NMDA receptor activation. Blockade of NMDA receptor activity restores spontaneous activity in zebrin-negative PCs of GLAST knockout mice and furthermore alleviates motor deficits. In addition both transporters have differential effects on PC survival, with zebrin-negative PCs more vulnerable to loss of GLAST/EAAT1 and zebrin-positive PCs more vulnerable to loss of EAAT4. These findings reveal that glutamate transporter dysfunction through elevated extracellular glutamate and the aberrant activation of extrasynaptic receptors can disrupt cerebellar output by altering spontaneous PC firing. This expands our understanding of disease mechanisms in cerebellar ataxias and establishes EAATs as targets for restoring homeostasis in a variety of neurological diseases where altered cerebellar output is now thought to play a key role in pathogenesis.

The influence that neurons exert on astrocytic function is poorly understood. To investigate this, we first developed a system combining cortical neurons and astrocytes from closely related species, followed by RNA-seq and in silico species separation. This approach uncovers a wide programme of neuron-induced astrocytic gene expression, involving Notch signalling, which drives and maintains astrocytic maturity and neurotransmitter uptake function, is conserved in human development, and is disrupted by neurodegeneration. Separately, hundreds of astrocytic genes are acutely regulated by synaptic activity via mechanisms involving cAMP/PKA-dependent CREB activation. This includes the coordinated activity-dependent upregulation of major astrocytic components of the astrocyte–neuron lactate shuttle, leading to a CREB-dependent increase in astrocytic glucose metabolism and elevated lactate export. Moreover, the groups of astrocytic genes induced by neurons or neuronal activity both show age-dependent decline in humans. Thus, neurons and neuronal activity regulate the astrocytic transcriptome with the potential to shape astrocyte–neuron metabolic cooperation., How neurons and neuronal activity regulate astrocyte functions is poorly understood. Hasel et al. identify two large groups of astrocytic genes that are regulated by neuronal contact and synaptic activity respectively, with distinct roles in astrocytic function; interestingly, many of these genes are dysregulated in neurodegeneration.

Recent advances in techniques for manipulating genomes have allowed the generation of transgenic animals other than mice. These new models enable cross-mammalian comparison of neurological disease from core cellular pathophysiology to circuit and behavioural endophenotypes. Moreover they will enable us to directly test whether common cellular dysfunction or behavioural outcomes of a genetic mutation are more conserved across species. Using a new rat model of Fragile X Syndrome, we report that Fmr1 knockout (KO) rats exhibit elevated basal protein synthesis and an increase in mGluR-dependent long-term depression in CA1 of the hippocampus that is independent of new protein synthesis. These defects in plasticity are accompanied by an increase in dendritic spine density selectively in apical dendrites and subtle changes in dendritic spine morphology of CA1 pyramidal neurons. Behaviourally, Fmr1 KO rats show deficits in hippocampal-dependent, but not hippocampal-independent, forms of associative recognition memory indicating that the loss of fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) causes defects in episodic-like memory. In contrast to previous reports from mice, Fmr1 KO rats show no deficits in spatial reference memory reversal learning. One-trial spatial learning in a delayed matching to place water maze task was also not affected by the loss of FMRP in rats. This is the first evidence for conservation across mammalian species of cellular and physiological hippocampal phenotypes associated with the loss of FMRP. Furthermore, while key cellular phenotypes are conserved they manifest in distinct behavioural dysfunction. Finally, our data reveal novel information about the selective role of FMRP in hippocampus-dependent associative memory.

Inhibition provided by local GABAergic interneurons (INs) activates ionotropic GABA

Aberrant NMDA receptor (NMDAR) activity contributes to several neurological disorders, but direct antagonism is poorly tolerated therapeutically. The GluN2B cytoplasmic C-terminal domain (CTD) represents an alternative therapeutic target since it potentiates excitotoxic signaling. The key GluN2B CTD-centred event in excitotoxicity is proposed to involve its phosphorylation at Ser-1303 by Dapk1, that is blocked by a neuroprotective cell-permeable peptide mimetic of the region. Contrary to this model, we find that excitotoxicity can proceed without increased Ser-1303 phosphorylation, and is unaffected by Dapk1 deficiency in vitro or following ischemia in vivo. Pharmacological analysis of the aforementioned neuroprotective peptide revealed that it acts in a sequence-independent manner as an open-channel NMDAR antagonist at or near the Mg2+ site, due to its high net positive charge. Thus, GluN2B-driven excitotoxic signaling can proceed independently of Dapk1 or altered Ser-1303 phosphorylation. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.17161.001

We report the synthesis of terminally fluorinated HU-210 and HU-211 analogues (HU-210F and HU-211F, respectively) and their biological evaluation as ligands of cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2) and N-methyl d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR). [(18)F]-labelled HU-210F was radiosynthesised from the bromo-substituted precursor. In vitro assays showed that both HU-210F and HU-211F retain the potent pharmacological profile of HU-210 and HU-211, suggesting that [(18)F]-radiolabelled HU-210F and HU-211F could have potential as PET tracers for in vivo imaging.

Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) offer unprecedented biomedical potential not only in relation to humans but also companion animals, particularly the horse. Despite this, attempts to generate bona fide equine embryonic stem cells have been unsuccessful. A very limited number of induced PSC lines have so far been generated from equine fibroblasts but their potential for directed differentiation into clinically relevant tissues has not been explored. In this study, we used retroviral vectors to generate induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) with comparatively high efficiency from equine keratinocytes. Expression of endogenous PSC markers (OCT4, SOX2, LIN28, NANOG, DNMT3B, and REX1) was effectively restored in these cells, which could also form in vivo several tissue derivatives of the three germ layers, including functional neurons, keratinized epithelium, cartilage, bone, muscle, and respiratory and gastric epithelia. Comparative analysis of different reprogrammed cell lines revealed an association between the ability of iPSCs to form well-differentiated teratomas and the distinct endogenous expression of OCT4 and REX1 and reduced expression of viral transgenes. Importantly, unlike in previous studies, equine iPSCs were successfully expanded using simplified feeder-free culture conditions, constituting significant progress toward future biomedical applications. Further, under appropriate conditions equine iPSCs generated cells with features of cholinergic motor neurons including the ability to generate action potentials, providing the first report of functional cells derived from equine iPSCs. The ability to derive electrically active neurons in vitro from a large animal reveals highly conserved pathways of differentiation across species and opens the way for new and exciting applications in veterinary regenerative medicine.

Summary Excessive mRNA translation downstream of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGlu1/5) is a core pathophysiology of fragile X syndrome (FX); however, the differentially translating mRNAs that contribute to altered neural function are not known. We used translating ribosome affinity purification (TRAP) and RNA-seq to identify mistranslating mRNAs in CA1 pyramidal neurons of the FX mouse model (Fmr1−/y) hippocampus, which exhibit exaggerated mGlu1/5-induced long-term synaptic depression (LTD). In these neurons, we find that the Chrm4 transcript encoding muscarinic acetylcholine receptor 4 (M4) is excessively translated, and synthesis of M4 downstream of mGlu5 activation is mimicked and occluded. Surprisingly, enhancement rather than inhibition of M4 activity normalizes core phenotypes in the Fmr1−/y, including excessive protein synthesis, exaggerated mGluR-LTD, and audiogenic seizures. These results suggest that not all excessively translated mRNAs in the Fmr1−/y brain are detrimental, and some may be candidates for enhancement to correct pathological changes in the FX brain., Highlights • TRAP-seq reveals altered translation of >120 mRNAs in Fmr1−/y CA1 pyramidal neurons • Muscarinic receptor M4 is excessively translated in Fmr1−/y hippocampus • Enhancement, not inhibition, of M4 corrects core phenotypes in the Fmr1−/y mouse • Not all excessively translating mRNAs are detrimental to Fmr1−/y brain function, Thomson et al. use TRAP-seq to identify excessive translation of muscarinic receptor M4 in Fmr1−/y neurons. Surprisingly, enhancement rather than inhibition of M4 corrects neurological Fmr1−/y phenotypes. This suggests that elevated translation of certain mRNAs in the FX brain may be protective rather than pathological.

Evolutionary differences in gene regulation between humans and lower mammalian experimental systems are incompletely understood, a potential translational obstacle that is challenging to surmount in neurons, where primary tissue availability is poor. Rodent-based studies show that activity-dependent transcriptional programs mediate myriad functions in neuronal development, but the extent of their conservation in human neurons is unknown. We compared activity-dependent transcriptional responses in developing human stem cell-derived cortical neurons with those induced in developing primary- or stem cell-derived mouse cortical neurons. While activity-dependent gene-responsiveness showed little dependence on developmental stage or origin (primary tissue vs. stem cell), notable species-dependent differences were observed. Moreover, differential species-specific gene ortholog regulation was recapitulated in aneuploid mouse neurons carrying human chromosome-21, implicating promoter/enhancer sequence divergence as a factor, including human-specific activity-responsive AP-1 sites. These findings support the use of human neuronal systems for probing transcriptional responses to physiological stimuli or indeed pharmaceutical agents. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.20337.001, eLife digest Cells in the brain known as neurons produce electrical activity that allows them to signal to other cells; this in turn allows us to think, feel, move, remember and learn. This electrical activity also causes the neurons to increase or decrease the activity of certain genes. Whether a gene is controlled by electrical activity depends on the structure of the regions of DNA, called promoters or enhancers, where certain proteins can bind in order to activate the gene. Studying how human neurons respond to electrical stimulation has been challenging because they are difficult to obtain and grow in the laboratory. Instead, most experiments have been conducted with mouse or rat neurons. However, it was not known to what extent the changes seen in gene activity in rodent neurons reflect the changes that occur in their human equivalents. Qiu et al. grew human neurons from human embryonic stem cells and compared these cells with the corresponding mouse neurons. Overall, the cells from both species generally reacted similarly to simulated electrical stimulation. However, some genes responded in significantly different ways in mouse and human neurons. For example, a gene called ETS2 was switched on more quickly and strongly in the human neurons than in mouse neurons. Further experiments indicated that some of these differences are because the promoter and enhancer regions of the genes have evolved in different ways in mice and humans. More research is now needed to test whether the differences in gene activation seen in the mouse and human neurons in response to electrical activity affect how the neurons work. It will be equally important to investigate whether neurons from different species respond differently to other factors, such as drugs. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.20337.002

Key points Neurodegenerative disorders can exhibit dysfunctional mitochondrial respiratory chain complex IV activity.Conditional deletion of cytochrome c oxidase, the terminal enzyme in the respiratory electron transport chain of mitochondria, from hippocampal dentate granule cells in mice does not affect low‐frequency dentate to CA3 glutamatergic synaptic transmission.High‐frequency dentate to CA3 glutamatergic synaptic transmission and feedforward inhibition are significantly attenuated in cytochrome c oxidase‐deficient mice.Intact presynaptic mitochondrial function is critical for the short‐term dynamics of mossy fibre to CA3 synaptic function. Abstract Neurodegenerative disorders are characterized by peripheral and central symptoms including cognitive impairments which have been associated with reduced mitochondrial function, in particular mitochondrial respiratory chain complex IV or cytochrome c oxidase activity. In the present study we conditionally removed a key component of complex IV, protohaem IX farnesyltransferase encoded by the COX10 gene, in granule cells of the adult dentate gyrus. Utilizing whole‐cell patch‐clamp recordings from morphologically identified CA3 pyramidal cells from control and complex IV‐deficient mice, we found that reduced mitochondrial function did not result in overt deficits in basal glutamatergic synaptic transmission at the mossy‐fibre synapse because the amplitude, input–output relationship and 50 ms paired‐pulse facilitation were unchanged following COX10 removal from dentate granule cells. However, trains of stimuli given at high frequency (> 20 Hz) resulted in dramatic reductions in short‐term facilitation and, at the highest frequencies (> 50 Hz), also reduced paired‐pulse facilitation, suggesting a requirement for adequate mitochondrial function to maintain glutamate release during physiologically relevant activity patterns. Interestingly, local inhibition was reduced, suggesting the effect observed was not restricted to synapses with CA3 pyramidal cells via large mossy‐fibre boutons, but rather to all synapses formed by dentate granule cells. Therefore, presynaptic mitochondrial function is critical for the short‐term dynamics of synapse function, which may contribute to the cognitive deficits observed in pathological mitochondrial dysfunction., Key points Neurodegenerative disorders can exhibit dysfunctional mitochondrial respiratory chain complex IV activity.Conditional deletion of cytochrome c oxidase, the terminal enzyme in the respiratory electron transport chain of mitochondria, from hippocampal dentate granule cells in mice does not affect low‐frequency dentate to CA3 glutamatergic synaptic transmission.High‐frequency dentate to CA3 glutamatergic synaptic transmission and feedforward inhibition are significantly attenuated in cytochrome c oxidase‐deficient mice.Intact presynaptic mitochondrial function is critical for the short‐term dynamics of mossy fibre to CA3 synaptic function.

N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) are ligand-gated ion channels (‘ionotropic’ receptors) activated by the major excitatory neurotransmitter, l-glutamate. While the term ‘the NMDAR’ is often used it obscures the fact that this class of receptor contains within it members whose properties are as different as they are similar. This heterogeneity was evident from early electrophysiological, pharmacological and biochemical assessments of the functional properties of NMDARs and while the molecular basis of this heterogeneity has taken many years to elucidate, it indicated from the outset that the diversity of NMDAR phenotypes could allow this receptor family to subserve a variety of functions in the mammalian central nervous system. In this review we highlight some recent studies that have identified structural elements within GluN2 subunits that contribute to the heterogeneous biophysical properties of NMDARs, consider why some recently described novel pharmacological tools may permit better identification of native NMDAR subtypes, examine the evidence that NMDAR subtypes differentially contribute to the induction of long-term potentiation and long-term depression and discuss how through the use of chimeric proteins additional insights have been obtained that account for NMDAR subtype-dependency of physiological and pathophysiological signalling. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled ‘Glutamate Receptor-Dependent Synaptic Plasticity’., Highlights ► Reviews the control of NMDAR functional properties by GluN2 subunits. ► Assesses structural elements of GluN2 subunits that determine NMDAR heterogeneity. ► Considers the utility of orthosteric and allosteric ligands acting at NMDARs. ► Potential of the NMDAR C-terminal domain as a novel therapeutic target is discussed.

Parvalbumin containing inhibitory interneurons (PV + INs) are a key element controlling co-ordinated activity of neuronal ensembles in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved