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The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory has been developing fully-depleted high resistivity CCDs. These CCDs exhibit very high red quantum efficiency, no red fringing, and very low lateral charge diffusion, making them good candidates for astronomical applications that require better red response or better point spread function than can typically be achieved with standard thinned CCDs. For the LBNL 2Kx4K CCD we have developed a four-side mosaic package fabricated from aluminum nitride. Our objectives have been to achieve a flatness of less than 10 micrometers peak-to-valley and a consistent final package thickness variation of 10 micrometers or less in a light-weight package. We have achieved the flatness objective, and we are working toward the thickness variation objective.

Two recent Keck optical imaging spectrographs have been designed with active flexure compensation systems (FCS). These two instruments utilize different methods for implementing flexure compensation. The Echellette Spectrograph and Imager (ESI), commissioned at the Cassegrain focus of the Keck II Telescope in late 1999, employs an open-loop control strategy. It utilizes a mathematical model of gravitationally-induced flexure to periodically compute flexure corrections as a function of telescope position. Those corrections are then automatically applied to a tip/tilt collimator to stabilize the image on the detector. The DEep Imaging Multi-Object Spectrograph (DEIMOS), commissioned at the Nasmyth focus of Keck II in June 2002, implements a closed-loop control strategy. It utilizes a set of fiber-fed FCS light sources at the ends of the slitmask to produce a corresponding set of spots on a pair of FCS CCD detectors located on either side of the science CCD mosaic. During science exposures, the FCS detectors are read out several times per minute to measure any translational motion of the FCS spot images. Correction signals derived from these FCS images are used to drive active optical mechanisms which steer the spots back to their nominal positions, thus stabilizing the FCS spot images as well as those on the science mosaic. We compare the design, calibration, and operation of these two systems on the telescope. Long-term performance results will be provided for the ESI FCS, and preliminary results will be provided for the DEIMOS FCS.

The DEIMOS spectrograph is a multi-object spectrograph being built for Keck II. DEIMOS was delivered in February 2002, became operational in May, and is now about three-quarters of the way through its commissioning period. This paper describes the major problems encountered in completing the spectrograph, with particular emphasis on optical quality and image motion. The strategies developed to deal with these problems are described. Overall, commissioning is going well, and it appears that DEIMOS will meet all of its major performance goals.

The DEep Imaging Multi-Object Spectrograph (DEIMOS) images with an 8K x 8K science mosaic composed of eight 2K x 4K MIT/Lincoln Lab (MIT/LL) CCDs. It also incorporates two 1200 x 600 Orbit Semiconductor CCDs for active, close-loop flexure compensation. The science mosaic CCD controller system reads out all eight science CCDs in 40 seconds while maintaining the low noise floor of the MIT/Lincoln Lab CCDs. The flexure compensation (FC) CCD controller reads out the FC CCDs several times per minute during science mosaic exposures. The science mosaic CCD controller and the FC CCD controller are located on the electronics ring of DEIMOS. Both the MIT/Lincoln Lab CCDs and the Orbit flexure compensation CCDs and their associated cabling and printed circuit boards are housed together in the same detector vessel that is approximately 10 feet away from the electronics ring. Each CCD controller has a modular hardware design and is based on the San Diego State University (SDSU) Generation 2 (SDSU-2) CCD controller. Provisions have been made to the SDSU-2 video board to accommodate external CCD preamplifiers that are located at the detector vessel. Additional circuitry has been incorporated in the CCD controllers to allow the readback of all clocks and bias voltages for up to eight CCDs, to allow up to 10 temperature monitor and control points of the mosaic, and to allow full-time monitoring of power supplies and proper power supply sequencing. Software control features of the CCD controllers are: software selection between multiple mosaic readout modes, readout speeds, selectable gains, ramped parallel clocks to eliminate spurious charge on the CCDs, constant temperature monitoring and control of each CCD within the mosaic, proper sequencing of the bias voltages of the CCD output MOSFETs, and anti-blooming operation of the science mosaic. We cover both the hardware and software highlights of both of these CCD controller systems as well as their respective performance.

The remarkable sensitivity of depleted silicon to ionizing radiation is a nuisance to astronomers. 'Cosmic rays' degrade images because of struck pixels, leading to modified observing strategies and the development of algorithms to remove the unwanted artifacts. In the new-generation CCD's with thick sensitive regions, cosmic-ray muons make recognizable straight tracks and there is enhanced sensitivity to ambient gamma radiation via Compton-scattered electrons ('worms'). Beta emitters inside the dewar, for example high-potassium glasses such as BK7 , also produce worm-like tracks. The cosmic-ray muon rate is irreducible and increases with altitude. The gamma rays are mostly by- products of 40K decay and the U and Th decay chains; these elements commonly appear as traces in concrete and other materials. The Compton recoil event rate can be reduced significantly by the choice of materials in the environment and dewar and by careful shielding. Telescope domes appear to have significantly lower rates than basement laboratories and Coude spectrograph rooms. Radiation sources inside the dewar can be eliminated by judicious choice of materials. Cosmogenic activation during high-altitude fights does not appear to be a problem. Our conclusion are supported by tests at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory low-level counting facilities in Berkeley and at Oroville, California (180 m underground).© (2002) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

In this paper we present new results from the characterization of a fully depleted CCD on high resistivity silicon. The CCD was fabricated at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory on a 10-12 K(Omega) -cm n-type silicon substrate. The CCD is a 200 by 200 15-micrometers square pixel array. The high resistivity of the starting material makes it possible to deplete the entire 300 micrometers thick substrate. This results in improved red and near IR response compared to a standard CCD. Because the substrate is fully depleted, thinning of the CCD is not required for backside illumination, and the result presented here were obtained with a backside illuminated device. In this paper we present measured quantum efficiency as a function of temperature, and we describe a novel clocking scheme to measure serial charge transfer efficiency. We demonstrate an industrial application in which the CCD is more than an order of magnitude more sensitive than a commercial camera using a standard CCD.

Most scientific CCD imagers are fabricated on 30-50 (Omega) - cm epitaxial silicon. When illuminated form the front side of the device they generally have low quantum efficiency in the blue region of the visible spectrum because of strong absorption in the polycrystalline silicon gates as well as poor quantum efficiency in the far red and near infrared region of the spectrum because of the shallow depletion depth of the low-resistivity silicon. To enhance the blue response of scientific CCDs they are often thinned and illuminated from the back side. While blue response is greatly enhanced by this process, it is expensive and it introduces additional problems for the red end of the spectrum. A typical thinned CCD is 15 to 25 micrometers thick, and at wavelengths beyond about 800 nm the absorption depth becomes comparable to the thickness of the device, leading to interference fringes from reflected light. Because these interference fringes are of high order, the spatial pattern of the fringes is extremely sensitive to small changes in the optical illumination of the detector. Calibration and removal of the effects of the fringes is one of the primary limitations on the performance of astronomical images taken at wavelengths of 800 nm or more. In this paper we present results from the characterization of a CCD which promises to address many of the problems of typical thinned CCDs. The CCD reported on here was fabricated at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) on a 10-12 K$OMega-cm n-type silicon substrate.THe CCD is a 200 by 200 15-micrometers square pixel array, and due to the very high resistivity of the starting material, the entire 300 micrometers substrate is depleted. Full depletion works because of the gettering technology developed at LBNL which keeps leakage current down. Both front-side illuminated and backside illuminated devices have been tested. We have measured quantum efficiency, read-noise, full-well, charge-transfer efficiency, and leakage current. We have also observed the effects of clocking waveform shapes on spurious charge generation. While these new CCDs promise to be a major advance in CD technology, they too have limitations such as charge spreading and cosmic-ray effects. These limitations have been characterized and are presented. Examples of astronomical observations obtained with the backside CCD on the 1-meter reflector at Lick Observatory are presented.

The Keck II Deep Imaging Multi-Object Spectrograph (DEIMOS) is a general purpose, faint object, multi-slit, double-beam spectrograph which offers wide spectral coverage, high spectral resolution, high throughput, and long slit length on the sky. This powerful instrument will be the principal optical spectrograph on the Keck II telescope. DEIMOS is optimized for faint-object spectroscopy of individual point sources, low-surface-brightness extended objects, or widely distributed samples of faint objects on the sky. To obtain high resolution (∼1 A) and wide spectral coverage (up to 5000 A) the spectrograph uses wide angle cameras and large CCD detectors with many pixels.

Lick Observatory has recently developed a near IR camera for astronomical imaging. The new camera has been built around the Rockwell International Inc. NICMOSIII 256 x 256 HgCdTe focal plane array. The dewar and optics were manufactured by IR Laboratories in Tuscon AZ, while the electronics, telescope interface, and data system were built at Lick Observatory. The Lick IR camera was designed primarily as a 1 to 2.5 micron Cassegrain imager, however, the dewar can also be operated as a high resolution spectrographic camera for the Lick Coude' Spectrograph in the 1 micron spectral region. At the Cassegrain focus the instrument is used to image faint galaxies, diffuse IR sources in star formation regions, and other astronomical objects. The camera operates at f/17 with focal plane scale reductions of 1: 1.25, 1: 2.5, and 1: 3.75. Thus the optics provide 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 arcseconds per pixel when used in the Cassegrain mode at the 3M telescope, and 0.6, 1.2, or 1.8 arcseconds per pixel when the camera when used on the 1M telescope. The 1: 1.25 scale of the camera gives a resolving power greater than 60,000 when used with the Coude spectrograph at 1.5 microns. Standard H, J, K as well as narrow band special purpose filters, for spectroscopy, are contained in two independent motorized filter wheels.