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Gaining detailed insights into the role of host immune responses in viral clearance is critical for understanding COVID-19 pathogenesis and future treatment strategies. While studies analyzing humoral immune responses against SARS-CoV-2 were available rather early during the pandemic, cellular immunity came into focus of investigations just recently.For the present work, we have adapted a protocol, designed for the detection of rare neoantigen-specific Memory T cells in cancer patients for studying cellular immune responses against SARS-CoV-2. Both, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were detected after 6 days of in vitro expansion using overlapping peptide libraries representing the whole viral protein. The assay readout was an Intracellular cytokine staining and flow cytometric analysis detecting four functional markers simultaneously (CD154, TNF, IL-2, IFN-γ).We were able to detect SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells in 9 of 9 COVID-19 patients with mild symptoms. All patients had reactive T cells against at least one of 12 analyzed viral antigens and all patients had Spike-specific T cells. While some antigens were detected by CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, Membrane protein was mainly recognized by CD4+ T cells. Strikingly, we were not able to detect SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells in 9 unexposed healthy individuals.We are presenting a highly specific protocol for the detection of SARS-CoV-2-reactive T cells. Our data confirmed the important role of cellular immune responses in understanding SARS-CoV-2 clearance. We showed that Spike is the most immunogenic antigen. We have introduced Membrane protein as interesting target for studying humoral immune responses in convalescent COVID-19 patients.

Gaining detailed insights into the role of host immune responses in viral clearance is critical for understanding COVID-19 pathogenesis and future treatment strategies. Although studies analyzing humoral immune responses against SARS-CoV-2 were available rather early during the pandemic, cellular immunity came into focus of investigations just recently. For the present work, we have adapted a protocol designed for the detection of rare neoantigen-specific memory T cells in cancer patients for studying cellular immune responses against SARS-CoV-2. Both CD4

Background/Aims: Inflammation is a major and critical component of the lung pathology in the hereditary disease cystic fibrosis. The molecular mechanisms of chronic inflammation in cystic fibrosis require definition. Methods: We used several genetic mouse models to test a role of iNKT cells and ceramide in pulmonary inflammation of cystic fibrosis mice. Inflammation was determined by the pulmonary cytokine profil and the abundance of inflammatory cells in the lung. Results: Here we provide a new concept how inflammation in the lung of individuals with cystic fibrosis is initiated. We show that in cystic fibrosis mice the mutation in the Cftr gene provokes a significant up-regulation of iNKT cells in the lung. Accumulation of iNKT cells serves to control autoimmune disease, which is triggered by a ceramide-mediated induction of cell death in CF organs. Autoimmunity becomes in particular overt in cystic fibrosis mice lacking iNKT cells and although suppression of the autoimmune response by iNKT cells is beneficial, IL-17+ iNKT cells attract macrophages and neutrophils to CF lungs resulting in chronic inflammation. Genetic deletion of iNKT cells in cystic fibrosis mice prevents inflammation in CF lungs. Conclusion: Our data demonstrate an important function of iNKT cells in the chronic inflammation affecting cystic fibrosis lungs. iNKT cells suppress the auto-immune response induced by ceramide-mediated death of epithelial cells in CF lungs, but also induce a chronic pulmonary inflammation.

Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) is a hematological malignancy of mature B cells and constitutes the most common leukemia in adults. It is characterized by a progressive accumulation of clonal B cells, which coexpress CD19, CD23 and CD5. The clinical course of CLL can be predicted by serveral prognostic markers like CD38, ZAP70 and cytogenetic abnormalities. While the treatment of CLL has significantly improved during recent years, it remains an essentially incurable disease and the molecular events that lead to its development are still largely elusive. NFAT is a family of highly phosphorylated transcription factors residing in the cytoplasm of resting cells. Upon dephosphorylation NFAT proteins translocate to the nucleus where they orchestrate developmental and activation programs in diverse cell types. NFAT is inactivated by a network of several kinases. Several recent studies have demonstrated that Ca2+/NFAT signaling is involved in the pathogenesis of a wide array of different tumor types including pancreatic adenocarcinoma, breast cancer and Non Hodgkin´s lymphoma. In this study we investigated the significance of the Ca2+/NFAT signaling pathway in B-CLL. For this purpose, we analyzed CLL cell lines (MEC-1, JVM-3) as well as primary blood samples from patients with CLL (n=30). The analyzed patient population exhibited a representative distribution of age, sex, Binet stage, WBC count, cytogenetics and IGVH mutational status. We detected a profound overexpression of NFAT2 mRNA as well as NFAT2 protein in all CLL samples. Using qRT-PCR we found that CD19+CD5+ CLL cells exhibited an at least three fold overexpression of NFAT2 as compared to CD19+ B cells isolated from healthy donors. In one case, NFAT2 expression in CLL cells was 200 times higher than in the corresponding controls. This profound overexpression of NFAT2 in CLL cells could be confirmed on the protein level using Western Blotting and Immunocytochemistry. We could further demonstrate that even under resting conditions significant amounts of NFAT2 protein had translocated to the nucleus in CLL cells, whereas virtually all NFAT2 was in the cytoplasm in healthy B cells. NFAT2 nuclear translocation could be inhibited using pretreatment with Cyclosporin A demonstrating that this process was still calcineurin-dependent in CLL cells. We could further show that nuclear NFAT2 in CLL cells was able to bind DNA using electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA). To assess the transcriptional activity of NFAT2 in human CLL we determined the expression of the apoptosis regulators OX40L, osteopontin and PD-L2, which we previously identified as NFAT2 target genes in a gene expression analysis with CD19+CD5+ CLL cells from TCL1 transgenic mice with intact NFAT2 and NFAT2 deletion, respectively. Interestingly, qRT-PCR revealed a tremendous reduction of all three target genes in the analyzed CLL samples as compared to control B cells from healthy donors. This is particularly remarkable, since in the TCL1 mouse model we observed a similar reduction of the expression of these genes in CLL cells with NFAT2 ablation. In summary, these results provide strong evidence that the Ca2+/NFAT signaling axis is constitutively activated in CD19+CD5+ CLL cells. Our data suggest that the profound overexpression of NFAT2 in CLL cells leads to its targeting to aberrant genetic loci different from its phsiological target genes resulting in a consecutive knock out phenotype with respect to the expression of the apoptosis regulators OX40, osteopontin and PD-L2 in CLL. Further investigation is therefore warranted to decipher the therapeutic potential of modulating the Ca2+/Calcineurin/NFAT signaling pathway in this disease. Disclosures: No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

NFAT is a family of highly phosphorylated proteins residing in the cytoplasm of resting cells. Upon dephosphorylation by calcineurin, NFAT proteins translocate to the nucleus where they orchestrate developmental and activation programs in diverse cell types. CLL is a clonal disorder of mature B cells characterized by the expression of CD19, CD23 and CD5. With respect to prognosis, it constitutes a heterogeneous disease with some patients exhibiting an indolent course for many years and others progressing rapidly and requiring early treatment. Expression of CD38 and ZAP70 define a subgroup of patients with enhanced responsiveness to stimulation of the B cell receptor (BCR) complex and more aggessive disease. In contrast, another subset of CLL patients with more indolent course is characterized by an anergic B cell phenotype refering to B cell unresponsiveness to IgM ligation and essential lack of phosphotyrosine induction and calcium flux. Here, we analyzed the role of NFAT2 in the pathogenesis of B-CLL and in anergy induction in CLL cells. For this purpose, we generated mice with a conditional NFAT2 knock out allele (NFAT2fl/fl). In order to achieve NFAT2 deletion limited to the B cell lineage, we bred NFAT2fl/fl mice to CD19-Cre mice. To investigate the role of NFAT2 in the pathogenesis of CLL we made use of the Eµ-TCL1 transgenic mouse model in which the TCL1 oncogene is expressed under the control of the Eµ enhancer. TCL1 transgenic mice develop a human-like CLL at the age of approximately 14 wks to which the animals eventually succumb at an average age of 10 months. To analyze the role of NFAT2 in CLL, we generated mice (n=10) whose B cells exhibited a specific deletion of this transcription factor in addition to their transgenic expression of the TCL1 oncogene (TCL1 CD19-Cre NFAT2fl/fl). TCL1 transgenic mice without an NFAT2 deletion served as controls (n=10). To identify novel NFAT2 target genes in CLL cells, we performed a comparative gene expression analysis on CLL cells with intact NFAT2 expression and on CLL cells with NFAT2 deletion using affymetrix microarrays. Mice with NFAT2 knock out exhibited a significantly more aggressive disease course with accelerated accumulation of CD5+CD19+ CLL cells and a significantly reduced life expectancy (200 vs. 325 days) as compared to control animals. Flow cytometric analysis at distinct time points showed a pronounced infiltration by CD5+ B cells of the peritoneal cavity, spleen, lymph nodes, liver and bone marrow which was significantly stronger in the NFAT2 ko cohort. Most of the CD5+ B cells in TCL1+NFAT2 ko mice showed high expression of ZAP70 and CD38, whereas TCL1 transgenic mice only demonstrated very few CD5+ B cells with concomitant expression of ZAP70 and CD38. To investigate the effects of an NFAT2 ko on proliferation and apoptosis of CD5+CD19+ CLL cells, we performed in vivo BrdU incorporation assays with subsequent flow cytometric analysis. Interestingly, we could show that CLL cells isolated from spleens, bone marrow and peripheral blood from mice with an NFAT ko exhibited significantly higher rates of proliferation than control animals. To identify NFAT2 target genes resonsible for the observed alterations in the disease phenotype, we subsequently peformed a gene expression analysis with CD5+CD19+ CLL cells from TCL1+NFAT2 ko mice with CLL cells from TCL1+ mice serving as controls. Here, we detected a significantly altered expression of 22 genes associated with B cell anergy in the TCL1+NFAT2 ko cohort. The vast majority of these genes was expressed significantly less in the absence of NFAT2 with Lck, Pacsin1, Hspa14 and CD166 constituting the strongest hits with up to 10fold reduced gene expression. Downregulation of the identified target genes was subsequently confirmed using RT-PCR and Western Blotting. In summary, our data provide strong evidence that NFAT2 is a critical regulator of CD38 and ZAP70 expression and substantially controls cell cycle progression in CLL cells. In addition, we could show that NFAT2 controls the expression of several anergy-associated genes and that its absence prevents the acquisition of an anergic phenotype by the CLL cells correlating with a significantly more aggressive course of the disease. Taken together, our data demonstrate that NFAT2 plays an essential role in the pathogenesis of CLL and implicate this transcription factor as a potential target in its treatment. Disclosures: No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.