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Germinated soybean is rich in bioactive compounds such as γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), polyphenols, and flavonoids. Thus, quantification of these components is critical for assessing nutritional value of soybean after germination and processing. In the current research, methods for determination of GABA, daidzein, genistein, and glycitein in germinated soybeans using high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet-visible detector (HPLC-UV-VIS) were optimized. Then, soybean germination time was optimized in ‘DT84’ and ‘DT51’, two Vietnamese soybean cultivars. These cultivars were soaked for 1 h, 2 h, 3 h, 4 h, and 5 h with water-to-bean ratio of 1:5 at 26 - 28 ºC to initiate germination. After being soaked, the seeds were germinated, dried, and ground into powder for quantification of GABA and isoflavone aglycones. The highest concentration of GABA, daidzein and genistein were reached after 1 h of bean soaking. Further, germinated ‘DT51’ had higher GABA and lower genistein and daidzein content than germinated ‘DT84’.Previous studies had reported the extraction and quantification of GABA and isoflavone aglycones in various food matrices. However, in this study we performed optimization of these procedures in a soybean matrix and showed potential of germination as a low-cost processing to boost the nutritional quality of soybean.

The interest in edible insects as food is growing, both in traditional and non-traditional insect-eating countries given their advantages in terms of sustainability and nutritional content. However, only a few studies have conducted cross-country investigations on the acceptance of including processed or whole insects in the diet. Thus, this study aimed to examine to which extent consumers were accepting (i) whole and visible mealworms, (ii) processed mealworms in their diet and (iii) to explore the factors affecting the acceptance level of consuming mealworms in countries with and without entomophagy tradition. An online survey was applied to collect responses (3,006) from five countries–i.e., Belgium, China, Italy, Mexico, and the US–using a quota sampling method. Moreover, an information treatment was included with about half of the participants receiving information about the advantages of edible insects as food (ingredient) and the presence of food safety regulations. Across countries, gender was the main factor affecting acceptance level as men accepted mealworms more than women. Entomophagy tradition mainly explained the differences among countries. Countries with entomophagy traditions (Mexico and China) showed higher acceptance of including whole or processed mealworms in the diet compared to countries with no entomophagy traditions (i.e., Belgium, Italy, and the US). While information and age did affect differently the acceptance of including processed mealworms in countries with entomophagy traditions showing that consumer acceptance was affected by information in Mexico and by age in China. Whereas it was found that younger people (below 42 years old) in countries without entomophagy tradition were more open to accepting processed mealworms in their diet. Moreover, across countries, the acceptance of including processed mealworms was higher compared to whole mealworms. These findings provide insights into which consumer segments to target and the potential impact of information when introducing new insect-based foods in countries with and without entomophagy traditions.

Insect oil is a valuable fraction that is obtained from insect processing. The aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of yellow mealworm oil (YMW) oil (crude, deodorized, and blended with vegetable oil) on the sensory evaluation and aroma profile of fried dough. The sensory evaluation was performed in a sensory lab (central location test, CLT) and at home in order to examine how the evaluation environment or context impacts consumer perceptions. The strongest liking and preference were found for the donuts that were fried in 100% deodorized YMW oil and in YMW oil blended with vegetable oil. The evaluation environment did not affect overall liking scores but had an impact on sensory profiling, with more discriminating sensory terms observed for the test that was conducted at the sensory lab than for the test that was conducted at home. A distinctive profile of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) was found for every fried dough. The discrimination between VOCs and other frying oils that were observed is well in line with the sensory descriptors and the consumer test results. Acetic acid, acetic acid ethenyl ester, and tetrahydro-6-propyl-2H-Pyran-2-one were present in the doughs that were fried in crude YMW oil and in its blend with vegetable oil. They were absent from deodorized YMW oil and from its blend with vegetable oil. This study shows that, as far as fried donuts are concerned, deodorized YMW oil is an alternative to a vegetable oil-the two lead to similar sensorial experiences and preferences. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Yellow mealworm oil (YMW) oil is a co-product of insect protein that can be valorized in the food industry. In the present study, it is demonstrated that the deodorization of YMW oil produces positive sensorial experiences and increases consumer acceptance of insect-based food. Furthermore, findings indicate that consumer testing at home yields similar acceptance and preference ratings suggesting that this type of testing may be an alternative means of collecting reliable consumer data.

The demand for mealworms as food is expected to increase over the coming years globally due to the recent sector development; however, consumer acceptance could vary among countries, hence, identifying drivers towards insects as food could help to develop different strategies to increase consumer acceptance, based on the location. Thus, this study aimed to explore consumers’ motivations to accept or reject whole and processed mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) in Belgium, China, Italy, Mexico, and the US (N = 3006). To reach this aim, an online survey with two open-ended questions was performed and responses were categorized into semantic groups based on their meaning. We identified what motivates consumers among different acceptance levels (“Yes, because…”, “Yes, but…”, “Maybe if…”, “No, because…”), and cross-country differences were investigated using hierarchical cluster analysis. “Healthiness” was the most frequent driver to accept whole and processed mealworms, except in Italy. “Aversion” and “dislike” were the most important barriers that led to rejecting these products across all five countries. However, some country differences exist. For example, Italian consumers often reported different motivations to either accept or reject mealworms, e.g., by giving less importance to health-related aspects and by showing more aversion towards the insect compared to the other countries. Reported reasons to reject mealworms were common between the traditional and non-traditional insect-eating countries.

Two cocoa types are predominantly being cultivated in Ecuador, the highly appreciated fine Nacional and the high-yielding and disease-resistant CCN51, classified as bulk. With the introduction of foreign germplasm in Ecuador and the international demand for high-quality Nacional cocoa, the present study aims to characterize and compare the flavor profile of Nacional hybrids (EET103, EET559, EET576 and EET577) and CCN51, and to assess the effect of the genotype. The fermented dried beans were processed into liquor and their sensory properties, volatile composition and odor fingerprint were analyzed by trained panelists, headspace–solid phase microextraction gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS–SPME–GC–MS), and GC electronic nose (e-nose), respectively, combined with multivariate statistics. Seventy volatiles were identified and semi-quantified, among them, 16 and 14 volatiles conferring fruity and floral aroma notes, respectively. CCN51 was mainly characterized by undesirable odor-active volatiles, whereas the EET cultivars contained the highest concentration of most fruity and floral volatiles, with differences in between EET cultivars. Sensory data highlighted organoleptic differences between the fine and bulk liquors, i.e. the fruity and acid EET flavor strongly differed from the bitter, astringent and off-flavor attributes of CCN51. Principal component analysis (PCA) discriminated firstly between fine and bulk, and secondly between EET identity. Partial least squares analysis identified possible correlations between sensory attributes and volatile compounds. Besides, e-nose proved its usefulness for rapid assessment of the liquors’ sensory profile. The results provide a foundation for understanding the genotype’s contribution to and the compositional basis of Ecuadorian fine and bulk cocoa flavor.

Fine flavor cocoa is worldwide renowned to produce origin chocolates with special aromas, e.g. fruity or floral, in addition to its chocolate aroma. This research aims to elucidate fine flavor dynamics during fermentation by analyzing the sugar, free amino acid (FAA) and volatile profile. Ecuadorian Trinitario beans (Sacha Gold) were sampled after 0, 18, 24, 48 and 66 h of spontaneous fermentation. The unfermented beans contained significant sucrose, glutamic acid and asparagine amounts while the fermented beans (66 h) contained more flavor precursors, e.g. glucose, fructose, hydrophobic and other FAA. Forty-one volatiles were identified, including 13 fruity- and 12 floral-like, derived from various metabolic pathways. Whereas the level of fatty acid-derived fruity volatiles decreased, the amount of amino acid-derived fruity and floral volatiles increased and floral terpenes remained stable. Some fine volatiles were assumed to be pulp-derived (e.g. linalool, β-myrcene, 2-heptyl acetate) or intrinsic to the bean (e.g. 2-heptanol, 2-heptanone, 2-pentanol), while others were generated during fermentation by microbial synthesis (e.g. 2-phenylethanol, isoamyl alcohol). Multivariate analysis clustered samples according to fermentation time and quality. These findings demonstrate that cocoa fermentation is essential for the formation of flavor precursors and the development or preservation of important fine aroma compounds. Trinitario (or hybrids), one of the cocoa varieties with fine flavor potential, is cultivated all over the world and hence, care should be taken during post-harvest to fully exploit this fine flavor character and deliver high-quality cocoa beans with fine sensory characteristics.

The presence of a fat crystal network throughout the fat droplets of an oil-in-water emulsion is a requisite for partial coalescence. The characteristics of this fat crystal network determine greatly the kinetics of partial coalescence. In this study the fat crystal network was manipulated by altering the cooling rate applied to natural cream. The kinetics of partial coalescence under constant shear and at constant temperature were studied by combining rotational viscosity analysis with light microscopy and laser scattering. It was shown that slow cooling of the emulsion decelerates partial coalescence and favors the formation of loosely-packed aggregates. On the other hand, fast cooling favors a high partial coalescence rate and the formation of dense aggregates. Fat crystallization properties were analyzed using small deformation rheology, differential scanning calorimetry and cryo-scanning electron microscopy. The difference in organization of the fat crystals obtained for both cooling rates contributed significantly to the mechanistic understanding of partial coalescence as influenced by the cooling rate.

The impact of pod storage (PS) and roasting temperature (RT) on the aroma profiles of dark chocolates were evaluated. Cocoa liquor samples comprised of ten different combinations of PS and RT, whilst keeping the roasting time fixed at 35 min. Additionally, commercial cocoa liquors from renowned origins (Ecuador, Madagascar, Venezuela, Vietnam, Ivory Coast and Ghana) were acquired for comparison. From these, 70% dark chocolates were produced under the same conditions after which they were subjected to headspace solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC–MS) analysis. Although both PS and RT were found to influence the aroma volatile concentrations, the impact of RT over PS seemed to be greater. An agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC) of all chocolates on the basis of their aroma profiles revealed a similar impact as earlier observed, where major clustering of the chocolates was in accordance with the intensity of the roasting process applied. However, within each group, the dissimilarities owing to PS among the chocolates was clearly depicted. Comparatively, chocolates with low (100–120 °C), instead of moderate to high (135–160 °C) RT's, rather showed a low dissimilarity with those from the commercial cocoa liquors of the different origins. Although from the same beans, the diversity of aroma profiles of these chocolates as well as the similitude of some treatments to some chocolates from commercial grade cocoa liquors, unequivocally underscores the possibility for steering diverse distinct flavors from ‘bulk’ cocoa through PS and roasting, with beneficial implications, both from an application and an economic point of view.

The variation in lipidome of house cricket, banded cricket, Jamaican field cricket and two-spotted cricket was studied using high-throughput screening techniques for fingerprinting (MALDI TOF MS, GC–MS and LC MS-MS) and well-stablished chromatographic techniques for quantification (HPLC-ELSD, GC- FID). Although the four cricket species were reared in identical conditions, two-spotted & banded crickets had a lipid content 1.5 fold higher than house cricket. The lipids were high in UFA (>63%) and unsaturated TAG (>98%) making them liquid at room temperature, thus an oil. Cholesterol and several phytosterols were profiled finding high cholesterol concentration which is a point of concern. Eight phospholipid types (211 species) were identified with no major differences among cricket species. Using high-throughput screening techniques we demonstrate the complexity of cricket lipidome. Information on the lipidome of these crickets with high commercial value is important to estimate its nutritional value and their potential food applications.

Introducing processed insects in food products is seen as a way to lower the barrier for insect consumption by Western consumers. Prior research indicated that crude insect lipids could partially replace butter in bakery products without influencing consumer's perception, but a complete substitution remained a challenge due to the presence of off-flavors. This study proposes oil deodorization as a means to reduce insect oil off-flavors and increase insect oil replacement in food products. We compared the effect of deodorization of yellow mealworm (YMW, Tenebrio molitor) oil on the partial and total replacement of vegetable oil in crackers and hummus. In total 253 participants joined the study (127 crackers study, 126 hummus study). Each participant evaluated 5 samples, 100% vegetable oil, 100% crude YMW oil, 100% deodorized YMW oil, 50% vegetable & 50% crude YMW oil and 50% vegetable & 50% deodorized YMW oil. Results showed that deodorized YMW oil could replace vegetable oil in both products without changing the overall food experience, liking and visual appearance in the products. In contrast, using crude YMW oil impacted the overall liking and certain sensory attributes, mostly related to flavor. Moreover, the use of deodorized YMW eliminated visual differences amongst the products. When YMW oil was used in a dispersion-like food, such as hummus, a less firm, more spreadable and less sticky hummus was obtained. Crude YMW oil also reduced hardness in low-moisture solid foods, such as crackers but further studies are necessary to fully understand this effect.

The rapidly increasing demand for protein has led to the pursuit of new protein sources, among which microbial protein (MP) is one of the most promising. Although the nutritional properties of MP are important and often well-studied, the sensory properties of the microbial cells will in part determine the commercial success of the product and are much less investigated. Here we assessed the odor fingerprint of dried bacteria originating from pure cultures and enriched mixed microbial communities using an electronic nose (e-nose). The e-nose discriminated between the different MP sources, while the choice of culture and substrate substantially affected their volatile organic compound (VOC) profile. The most dominant odor descriptors (>20% of VOC peak area) were sweet, fruity and fishy, while the mixed cultures presented higher peak areas indicating potentially more intense aromas than the pure cultures. The e-nose can detect the suitability of new MP sources and determine their best end-use.

Consumer’s demand for more natural food formulations has driven the development of alternative food additives. This study falls within this challenge through valorisation of Moringa oleifera leaves grown in Algeria as a possible natural food additive. The application of Algerian Moringa oleifera leaves extract (MOLE) was evaluated as a substitute of vitamin E in margarine at various addition levels (400 ppm, 600 ppm and 800 ppm). The impact on margarine quality attributes was studied, namely oxidative stability, structural and textural structural properties. It was shown that addition of MOLE to margarine increased resistance towards oxidation, showing a higher antioxidant capacity as compared to vitamin E. Moreover, MOLE formulated in margarine served as an emulsifier decreasing water droplet size, which is desirable from a microbiological viewpoint. These observed effects can have a positive impact on margarine’s shelf life. Furthermore, addition of MOLE leads to the formation of smaller fat crystals, resulting in a different microstructure. MOLE also increased the hardness of margarine by altering the crystallization process. Practical applications: MOLE represents a natural, food-grade additive that prevents lipid oxidation. It is a food ingredient that can contribute positively to margarine quality and to the development of clean-label food products.

The use of alternative equipment for chocolate production is gaining attention in recent times in many countries. This is due to the lower cost of investment and maintenance, multi-functionality, and lower throughput. This study was conducted to investigate the applicability of two of such equipment; melanger and Stephan mixer. In the first set-up, the possibility of refining chocolate with the melanger in comparison with the conventional 3-roll refiner was explored. Whereas in the second set-up, the applicability of the Stephan mixer (aided with a vacuum pump) for a conching-like application was also investigated. From each set-up, 70% dark chocolates produced through various alternative means were then evaluated on the basis of their flavor profiles. Specific groups of volatiles such as aldehydes, ketones, terpenes and terpenoids, showed significant (p 0.05) preference for these representative chocolates from the clusters. These findings stimulate various practical application possibilities for tuning chocolate flavor through alternative processing for both industries and various artisans worldwide.

In the present study, we aimed to investigate the changes in triacylglycerol (TAG) composition as affected by alterations in the cows' diet due to seasonal variations and genetic factors. For this study, 50 milk fat samples in winter and 50 in summer were used from 25 cows with the DGAT1 KK genotype and 25 cows with the DGAT1 AA genotype. The samples were analyzed for milk fat content (%), fat composition, and TAG composition. We found that the content of TAG species CN54 was higher and that of CN34 and CN36 lower in summer than in winter. This seasonal variation in TAG profile was related to seasonal changes in the fatty acids C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C18:1 cis-9, total unsaturated fatty acids, and total long-chain fatty acids, most likely resulting from dietary differences between seasons. Furthermore, we quantified the effect of DGAT1 K232A polymorphism on TAG profile and detected a significant effect on TAG species CN36, with higher values for the DGAT1 KK genotype. When adjusting for differences in fat content, we found no significant effects of the DGAT1 K232A polymorphism on TAG profile. We detected a significant interaction between DGAT1 K232A polymorphism and season for TAG species CN42 and CN52; in summer, the KK genotype was associated with higher levels for CN42 than the AA genotype, whereas in winter, the difference between the genotypes was small. For CN52, in summer the AA genotype was associated with higher levels than the KK genotype. In winter, the difference between the genotypes was also small. We show that, regardless of preference for DGAT1 genotype (AA or KK) and depending on the availability of FA according to season, UFA (C18:1 cis-9), short-chain FA (C6:0 and C10:0), and medium-chain FA might be esterified on the glycerol backbone of the TAG, keeping the structure characteristics of each TAG species. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the interaction effect of DGAT1 K232A polymorphism and season on the TAG composition in milk fat.

Insect fractionation and insect ingredient characterisation is of relevance in view of the increase in insect production and demand of insect ingredients worldwide. This study aims to contribute to the knowledge of insect oils that were extracted from insects commercially reared in Europe. Oil was extracted from yellow mealworm, lesser mealworm, house cricket and Dubia cockroach by an aqueous based oil extraction method. These insect oils were physico-chemically characterised on the most important parameters for food applications, namely thermal behaviour (differential scanning calorimeter), colour (spectrophotometry) and aroma compounds (gas chromatography-mass spectrometry). The amount and the composition of the un-extracted lipid fraction was determined by means of fatty acid (FA) profiling (gas chromatography with flame ionisation detector). Although no distinctive pattern was seen in all four species, it becomes clear from its FA profile that the extracted fat is more similar to the residue and cream fractions than to the pellet and supernatant. The amount of lipids that was not extracted was species dependent ranging from 40 to up to 82% of the total lipid content. Further work is needed to reduce the oil loss in this extraction. The extracted insect oil presented a wide range of melting peaks, from -30.7 to 22.7 °C, which makes them liquid-like at room temperature. Its thermal profile shows separated peaks showing that fat fractionation is feasible. Oil colour was bright yellow-reddish. Most oils had compounds related to pleasant aromas, except for Dubia cockroach. In the latter oil several acid compounds related to unpleasant aromas were identified. This study shows that yellow meal worm oil, lesser mealworm oil and cricket oil have characteristics desirable for table oils and for oils use as food ingredients.

With the rising interest by consumers for high-quality cocoa products from a clear geographical origin, a rapid analytical method for quality control, authenticity and traceability assessment is of paramount importance. However, the complex mixture of volatiles present in cocoa liquor, the main ingredient for the chocolate production, complicates reaching this purpose. Hence, an analytical fingerprint approach using advanced electronic nose (E-nose) technology may offer a suitable technique. This study aimed to verify the suitability of an E-nose based on ultra-fast gas chromatography (GC) for the rapid discrimination between cocoa liquors from different origins. Fourteen cocoa liquors, produced of cocoa beans from ten different geographical origins, were analyzed. The obtained odor fingerprints were investigated using principal component analysis (PCA) which successfully discriminated most cocoa liquors, within one continent, according to their geographical origin. Besides, discriminant factor analysis (DFA) showed the possibility to differentiate between bulk and fine cocoa. Further tentative identification of predominant volatile compounds allowed the detection of compounds within a wide range of chemical classes occurring in cocoa products, such as acids, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, pyrazines, pyrones, and pyrroles. Most odorant compounds were previously described in literature as key volatiles in cocoa flavor, notable examples are acetic acid, 2-heptanol, 2/3-methylbutanal, acetophenone, isoamyl acetate, tetramethylpyrazine, maltol, and 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline. This study proves for the first time the usefulness of the GC E-nose for effective and rapid aroma profiling and discrimination between single origin cocoa liquors, which can be easily applied in the cocoa industry.

Industrial valorization of proteins from traditional edible insects requires knowledge of their nutritional, chemical, technological characteristics. Therefore, these characteristics in two Mexican edible insects (A. cordifera and B. mellifica) were studied and compared to commercial insect species (H. illucens). The nutritional attributes of insect protein concentrates (PCs) were determined by their protein content, amino acid and polyphenol compositions. The chemical structure of the proteins was determined by Fourier-Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). Moreover, the surfactant properties of insect-PC (emulsions) were evaluated. B. mellifica PC showed the highest content of protein content among the studied insects (57.1%). In contrast, H. illucens showed the highest polyphenols (12.7 mg/g). The emulsions prepared with insect-PC from A. cordifera and B. mellifica showed higher stability than H. illucens, where a bigger droplet size and a rapid phase separation occurred. The decrease in emulsification properties of black soldier fly larvae was attributed to a possible interaction between polyphenols and proteins that hinders emulsification. This study increases the understanding of the structural and techno-functional characteristics of insect-PC of commercial and local insect species.

The impact of pod storage (PS) and roasting temperature (RT) on the quality parameters and the sensory profiles of dark chocolates were evaluated. Dark chocolates (70%) from ten liquors of different PS and RT combinations as well as six liquors of different origins (Ecuador, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Madagascar, Venezuela and Vietnam) with variable genetic groups were produced under identical conditions and compared. To a greater extent, the range of chocolate quality attributes underscored the generally minimal effects of PS, RT and origin of liquor on the processing conditions. Although with a few exceptions, generally, chocolate acidity (pH and TA) decreased with increasing PS and vice versa in the case of RT. Furthermore, results from a balanced incomplete block design (BIBD) involving a 16-member expert panel also revealed the impact of the applied treatments (PS and RT) on the final flavor profiles of the chocolates irrespective of the origin or genetic groups of the cocoa beans. The same was confirmed when instrumental aroma results were correlated with the sensory data using partial least squares (PLS) regression models. Thus, this study demonstrates the possibility of creating diverse flavor profiles (even towards ‘fine’ flavor) from ‘bulk’ cocoa beans through an optimized combination of PS and RT. The findings are therefore expected to challenge the status-quo, especially in the way ‘bulk’ cocoa is currently processed and consequently priced, thereby, possibly fostering a win-win situation between cocoa producers and industries.

In this study, we characterized the polymorphism of milk fat (MF) with various TAG compositions during isothermal crystallization at 20 °C. TAG composition of MF from seven individual cows was determined using GC-FID and MALDI-TOF MS, and MF polymorphism was studied using X-ray diffraction. Results showed that TAG profile determines the polymorphic behavior of MF. Saturated TAG with carbon numbers 34-38 promoted the formation of α polymorphs, whereas unsaturated TAG with 52-54 promoted the formation of the β polymorphs. Furthermore, MFs with unsaturated fatty acid profiles were increased in unsaturated TAG with 52-54 carbons. The presence of MF crystals in the β polymorph has been controversial over the years as most authors mainly find MF crystals in the α and β′ form. In our work, we showed that the β polymorph is formed in MF on the basis of its TAG composition.

Phytosterols (PSs) are insoluble in water and poorly soluble in oil, which hampers their potential as cholesterol level regulator in human. To mitigate this problem, monoglycerides (MGs) were used to modulates the crystallization behavior of PSs. Therefore, the understanding on mixing behavior provides the insight into different aspects of crystallization and the resultant effects. The effects on thermal, morphology, diffraction, and spectroscopy behavior were investigated for binary mixtures of 11 different ratios (100:0 to 0:100 MGs:PSs). The phase behavior of binary mixtures of commercial MGs and PSs exhibited complexity with the formation of eutectic mixtures at 90:10 and 80:20 (MGs:PSs) combinations. These combinations revealed a single melting profile and reduced melting enthalpy, though after a month of storage at 5 °C. Conversely, two separate melting regions were observed in others. Furthermore, powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) analysis of selected combinations revealed a change in crystalline forms with changes in the peaks located between 18-19° (2θ) and 25-26° (2θ). Accordingly, Raman spectroscopy results revealed changes in intensities and peak shape. Therefore, the change in crystalline forms or behavior correlated well to the change in thermal properties. Overall, the characterizations revealed the formation of eutectic mixtures between MGs and PSs at 90:10 and 80:20 (MGs:PSs) in which MGs modified the crystallization of PSs and changed the crystal forms thus, thermal behaviors. This study provides new insight into the mixing behavior of MGs and PSs which supports other research. Therefore, the results of this study are beneficial for the improvement of formulation of phytosterols in food and pharmaceutical products. Nonetheless, this study reveals a simple technique to alter crystal forms of phytosterols through simple complexation with monoglycerides.

The practice of pod storage (PS) has been applied in many cocoa producing countries, especially by Ghanaian farmers over the years. However, the study of PS has not received much attention, hence, until now, its potential impact on specific flavor precursor development and implications on the flavor of cocoa beans still remains uncovered. The study was therefore aimed at exploring this possibility through physico-chemical and flavor precursor analyses, carried out on equally fermented and dried pod stored (0, 3 and 7 days) Ghanaian cocoa beans. Flavor analysis was also conducted on equally roasted pod stored cocoa beans. Through visual assessment of the pods, pulp and beans, the compelling impact of PS on fermentation index (FI) and nib acidity could be demonstrated by the various biochemical and physical changes such as respiration, moisture reduction, and cellular degradation, occurring during the process. Whereas the entire reaction of sugar degradation may be deemed complex, a clear relationship between the FI, nib acidity and the glucose content was observed. Also, PS was found to increase with marginal increase in total reducing sugars (glucose and fructose). Although the concentration of free amino acids was directly proportional to the duration of PS, within the framework of this study, a significant difference (p

Bovine milk fat (MF) is considered to be one of the most complex fats, as it can consist of 400 FA which are non-randomly esterified into the TAG molecule. This study aims to determine specific differences on MF TAG profile between summer and winter cow's milk, and to study the feasibility of TAG fragmentation on non-chemically hydrogenated MF using MALDI-TOF/TOF MS with post source decay. The most notable discrimination between summer and winter MF is seen in polyunsaturated TAG, which are more abundant in summer. The feasibility of MF TAG fragmentation in non-chemically hydrogenated TAG is assessed using bulk MF and TAG previously separated according to degree of unsaturation. This last approach shows to be the most suitable. We show that sample concentration and abundance ratio with neighboring TAG affects TAG fragmentation. Non-chemically hydrogenated MF TAG has not been previously fragmented. Furthermore, this is the first time that the conditions affecting TAG fragmentation in MF are reported. Practical Application: TAG constitute the fundamental unit of fat crystals. Hence, fat crystal network is affected by variations in TAG profile. Understanding the variability of MF TAG profile between seasons may help to explain differences on crystallization behavior seen through the year in industrial processes. Moreover, TAG fragmentation allows determination of FA composition of individual TAG. This information is needed when studying the mechanism of FA acylation into TAG. For instance, when studying the effect of genetic variation of diacylglycerol acyl transferase isomer one in cows. The reported technique increases the capacity of MALDI-TOF MS in lipidomic analysis. This study aims to determine specific differences in milk-fat triacylglycerol (TAG) profiles between summer and winter cow's milk, and to study the feasibility of TAG fragmentation on non-chemically hydrogenated milk fat using MALDI-TOF/TOF MS with post source decay.

Including insect ingredients into familiar food products could be a step in enabling a higher acceptance of insects in Western countries. This study investigates the potential of bakery products containing black soldier fly larvae fat (BSF LF) as an ingredient. Sensory and emotional profiling, WTP, liking and product preference were examined for cakes, cookies, and waffles by a total of 344 respondents. Each bakery product was formulated with 0%, 25% and 50% BSF LF as butter substitute. Results showed that BSF LF can replace 25% of butter in these bakery products without changing the overall food experience and liking. In waffles, the substitution might even be up to 50% without influencing consumer’s acceptance. The attributes related to texture and color were hardly affected indicating that this insect fat provides a similar structure and functionality to bakery products as compared with butter. Future research should explore the use of refined BSF LF to reduce off-flavors perceived in formulations containing a higher percentage of insect fat.

The unique impact of roasting conditions on the aroma quality of cocoa beans has been demonstrated in many studies. However, information on the additional impact of pod storage (PS) and its combined effect with roasting temperature (RT) is unknown. Hence, this study sought to elucidate the collective contribution of these post-harvest/process parameters on the aroma profiles of cocoa liquors produced from Forastero cocoa beans. The beans had been subjected to different treatments following a 3 × 4 full factorial experiment, consisting of PS (0, 3, 7 days) and RT (100, 120, 140, 160 °C). Statistical analysis of the results from HS-SPME-GC-MS revealed significant (p .05) impact of both PS and RT as well as their interaction effects on the ten groups of volatiles (acids, alcohols, esters, terpenes, aldehydes, ketones, pyrazines, furans, pyrroles and others) and their overall aroma concentration. An exception was however noted for aldehydes, where the total concentration was only significantly (p .05) influenced by the individual effects of PS and RT. A subsequent clustering of the liquors, first on the basis of all identified volatiles, then, on the basis of the odor-active volatiles, also revealed similar pattern where liquors with high RT's possessed more volatiles with higher concentrations and vice versa. More so, it seemed that no or very minimal PS treatment was necessary for preserving more aromatic volatiles with typically fruity, floral or spicy flavor notes, whereas, for liquors with volatiles exhibiting more cocoa, chocolate, nutty and roasted flavor notes, prolonged PS (3 days) treatment was required. These findings are expected to challenge the status-quo, specifically in the conventional ways through which the aroma potential of 'bulk' cocoa may be steered. On the one hand, the idea of manipulating PS treatment and roasting conditions may indeed consolidate the possibility of creating diverse and/or distinct aroma profiles from the same 'bulk' cocoa beans, whereas, on the other hand, it raises the question whether the Ghanaian cocoa beans - being described as 'bulk' cocoa - could be a consequence of prolonged pod storage treatment.

Milk fat (MF) triacylglycerols (TAG) determine the physical and functional properties of butter and products rich in MF. To predict these properties, it is necessary to understand the variability of fatty acids, TAG, their associations, and their effect on milk productive traits, days in milk (DIM), and genes related to fat synthesis. Therefore, the aim of this research was to study the variability of TAG using MF from individual cows and to investigate the effect of fatty acid composition, DGAT1 K232A polymorphism, DIM, and milk production traits (fat content and morning milk yield) on MF TAG profile in the Dutch Holstein-Friesian dairy cattle population. Large differences in MF TAG profiles were seen among cows. We showed that the variability of TAG is highest for low and high molecular weight TAG [TAG with carbon numbers (Cn) 26-30 and Cn52-54, respectively] and lowest for TAG with Cn38, which was the most abundant TAG. Saturation index (saturated fatty acid/unsaturated fatty acid) and the ratio C16:0/C18:1 cis-9 showed significant effects on TAG Cn34, Cn36, Cn52, and Cn54: TAG Cn34 and Cn36 increased as the saturation index and ratio C16:0/C18:1 cis-9 increased, whereas the opposite was seen for TAG Cn52 and Cn54. Moreover, the DGAT1 K232A polymorphism significantly affected TAG Cn38. We showed that the relative concentration of TAG with Cn38 was higher in cows with DGAT1 KK genotype. Production traits (fat content and morning milk yield) and DIM had no significant effect on TAG profile. This is a relevant observation because considerable increases of milk yield and fat content have been seen in the Netherlands over the last 60 yr. The large differences shown between individual cows in MF TAG profile imply differences in physical properties of MF.

In view of future expected industrial bio-fractionation of insects, we investigated the influence of extraction methods on chemical characteristics of insect lipids. Lipids from Tenebrio molitor, Alphitobius diaperinus, Acheta domesticus and Blaptica dubia, reared in the Netherlands, were extracted by two industrial extraction processes (aqueous and Soxhlet) and one laboratory method (Folch extraction). Chemical characterization in terms of fatty acid composition (GC-FID), triacylglycerol profile (GC) and lipid classes (TLC) was performed on all the extracted lipids. The major findings on lipid chemical characterization were the following: (1) T. molitor had the highest lipid content around 13%; (2) the highest yield was obtained using Folch extraction, and the lowest yield using the aqueous method (from 19 to 60% related to the lipid recovery of Folch extraction); (3) ¿-3 fatty acids,which are related to health benefits, weremost abundant in lipids fromaqueous extraction,while¿-6 fatty acids were most abundant in Folch extractions, except for B. dubia; (4) lipids from Folch and Soxhlet extractions contained free fatty acids and partial glycerides, which were absent in aqueous extractions; (5) triacylglycerol distribution is similar among insect species, with high levels of ECN 50–54 and low amounts of ECN 36–38. In conclusion, aqueous extraction gave the lowest lipid yield, but provided a lipid extract low in ¿-6/¿-3 ratio and with less polar lipids than Soxhlet and Folch extractions. These characteristics are desirable in edible lipids. This is the first time that the triacylglycerol profile of insect lipids is reported. It is also the first time that C18:1 and C18:2 are reported as separated isomers and that trans isomers of C16:1 and C18:1 are reported in insect lipids.

Fatty acids (FA) are nonrandomly distributed within milk fat triacylglycerols (TAG). Moreover, the structure of milk fat TAG differs with feeding regimens. So far, nothing is known about the variation of milk fat TAG structure among individual cows. A deep understanding of the normal variation of TAG structures and the relationships between milk fat FA profile and its TAG structure could help to better control functional and compositional differences between milk fats from various sources and to increase the knowledge on milk fat synthesis. The focus of the present study was to determine the regiospecific TAG structure of individual samples of winter milk fat from Dutch Holstein-Friesian cows with a wide variation of FA profiles and with 2 diacylglycerol acyltransferase 1 (DGAT1) genotypes: DGAT1 K232A genotype AA and DGAT1 K232A genotype KK. From an initial set of 1,918 individual milk fat samples, 24 were selected. The selected samples had a wide range of FA composition and had either DGAT1 K232A genotype AA or KK. The structure analysis was done with a regiospecific approach. This analysis is based on the acyl degradation of TAG by a Grignard reagent and further isolation of sn-2 monoacylglycerols by thin-layer chromatography. An intra- and interpositional approach was used to study the structural variation. With the intrapositional approach, the amount of an FA at the secondary (sn-2) and primary (sn-1,3) positions was related to its total amount in the TAG. With the interpositional approach, the proportion of C8:0, C10:0, C14:1 cis-9, C16:1 cis-9, and C18:1 cis-9 at sn-2 was positively correlated with the amount of C16:0 in the triacylglycerol; in contrast, saturated C14:0, C16:0, and long-chain saturated FA (C14:0–C18:0) were negatively correlated. These observations suggest that the amount of long-chain saturated FA in TAG influences the positioning of other FA in the TAG. With an interpositional approach, the DGAT1 polymorphism had a significant effect on the proportional positioning of C16:0 at sn-2. These results provide a new direction to controlling functional and compositional differences between milk fats.