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Smallpox and monkeypox pose severe threats to human health. Other orthopoxviruses are comparably virulent in their natural hosts, including ectromelia, the cause of mousepox. Disease severity is linked to an array of immunomodulatory proteins including the B22 family, which has homologs in all pathogenic orthopoxviruses but not attenuated vaccine strains. We demonstrate that the ectromelia B22 member, C15, is necessary and sufficient for selective inhibition of CD4+ but not CD8+ T cell activation by immunogenic peptide and superantigen. Inhibition is achieved not by down-regulation of surface MHC- II or co-stimulatory protein surface expression but rather by interference with antigen presentation. The appreciable outcome is interference with CD4+ T cell synapse formation as determined by imaging studies and lipid raft disruption. Consequently, CD4+ T cell activating stimulus shifts to uninfected antigen-presenting cells that have received antigen from infected cells. This work provides insight into the immunomodulatory strategies of orthopoxviruses by elucidating a mechanism for specific targeting of CD4+ T cell activation, reflecting the importance of this cell type in control of the virus., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. more...

We assessed several routes of immunization with vaccinia virus (VACV) in protecting mice against ectromelia virus (ECTV). By a wide margin, skin scarification provided the greatest protection. Humoral immunity and resident-memory T cells notwithstanding, several approaches revealed that circulating, memory CD8(+) T cells primed via scarification were functionally superior and conferred enhanced virus control. Immunization via the epithelial route warrants further investigation, as it may also provide enhanced defense against other infectious agents., (Copyright © 2014, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.) more...

The vaccinia virus A56 protein was one of the earliest-described poxvirus proteins with an identifiable activity. While originally characterized as a haemagglutinin protein, A56 has other functions as well. The A56 protein is capable of binding two viral proteins, a serine protease inhibitor (K2) and the vaccinia virus complement control protein (VCP), and anchoring them to the surface of infected cells. This is important; while both proteins have biologically relevant functions at the cell surface, neither one can locate there on its own. The A56-K2 complex reduces the amount of virus superinfecting an infected cell and also prevents the formation of syncytia by infected cells; the A56-VCP complex can protect infected cells from complement attack. Deletion of the A56R gene results in varying effects on vaccinia virus virulence. In addition, since the gene encoding the A56 protein is non-essential, it can be used as an insertion point for foreign genes and has been deleted in some viruses that are in clinical development as oncolytic agents. more...

Complement activation is an important component of the innate immune response against viral infection and also shapes adaptive immune responses. Despite compelling evidence that complement activation enhances T cell and antibody (Ab) responses during viral infection, it is unknown whether inhibition of complement by pathogens alters these responses. Vaccinia virus (VACV) modulates complement activation by encoding a complement regulatory protein called the vaccinia virus complement control protein (VCP). Although VCP has been described as a virulence factor, the mechanisms by which VCP enhances VACV pathogenesis have not been fully defined. Since complement is necessary for optimal adaptive immune responses to several viruses, we hypothesized that VCP contributes to pathogenesis by modulating anti-VACV T cell and Ab responses. In this study, we used an intradermal model of VACV infection to compare pathogenesis of wild-type virus (vv-VCPwt) and a virus lacking VCP (vv-VCPko). vv-VCPko formed smaller lesions in wild-type mice but not in complement-deficient mice. Attenuation of vv-VCPko correlated with increased accumulation of T cells at the site of infection, enhanced neutralizing antibody responses, and reduced viral titers. Importantly, depleting CD8(+) T cells together with CD4(+) T cells, which also eliminated T helper cell-dependent Ab responses, restored vv-VCPko to wild-type levels of virulence. These results suggest that VCP contributes to virulence by dampening both antibody and T cell responses. This work provides insight into how modulation of complement by poxviruses contributes to virulence and demonstrates that a pathogen-encoded complement regulatory protein can modulate adaptive immunity. more...

The vaccinia virus (VACV) complement control protein (VCP) is an immunomodulatory protein that is both secreted from and expressed on the surface of infected cells. Surface expression of VCP occurs though an interaction with the viral transmembrane protein A56 and is dependent on a free N-terminal cysteine of VCP. Although A56 and VCP have been shown to interact in infected cells, the mechanism remains unclear. To investigate if A56 is sufficient for surface expression, we transiently expressed VCP and A56 in eukaryotic cell lines and found that they interact on the cell surface in the absence of other viral proteins. Since A56 contains three extracellular cysteines, we hypothesized that one of the cysteines may be unpaired and could therefore form a disulfide bridge with VCP. To test this, we generated a series of A56 mutants in which each cysteine was mutated to a serine, and we found that mutation of cysteine 162 abrogated VCP cell surface expression. We also tested the ability of other poxvirus complement control proteins to bind to VACV A56. While the smallpox homolog of VCP is able to bind VACV A56, the ectromelia virus (ECTV) VCP homolog is only able to bind the ECTV homolog of A56, indicating that these proteins may have coevolved. Surface expression of poxvirus complement control proteins may have important implications in viral pathogenesis, as a virus that does not express cell surface VCP is attenuated in vivo. This suggests that surface expression of VCP may contribute to poxvirus pathogenesis. more...

The vaccinia virus (VACV) complement control protein (VCP) is the major protein secreted from VACV-infected cells. It has been reported that VCP binds to the surfaces of uninfected cells by interacting with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs). In this study, we show that VCP is also expressed on the surfaces of infected cells and demonstrate that surface localization occurs independently of HSPGs. Since VCP does not contain a transmembrane domain, we hypothesized that VCP interacts with a membrane protein that localizes to the infected-cell surface. We show that the VACV A56 membrane protein is necessary for the cell surface expression of VCP and demonstrate that VCP and A56 interact in VACV-infected cells. Since the surface expression of VCP was abrogated by reducing agents, we examined the contribution of an unpaired cysteine residue on VCP to VCP surface expression and VCP's interaction with A56. To do this, we mutated the unpaired cysteine in VCP and generated a recombinant virus expressing the altered form of VCP. Following the infection of cells with the mutant virus, VCP was neither expressed on the cell surface nor able to interact with A56. Importantly, the cell surface expression of VCP was found to protect infected cells from complement-mediated lysis. Our findings suggest a new function for VCP that may be important for poxvirus pathogenesis and impact immune responses to VACV-based vaccines. more...