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This study investigated the effects of different cooking techniques (hot-air baking and deep frying) on digestibility, thermal properties, and functional compounds of potatoes, carrots, and cultivated mushrooms. Color values (Hunter L, a, b, and ΔE), thermal properties (To and ΔH values), total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, estimated glycemic index (eGI), and sensory properties analyses were carried out on the obtained products. According to the results, a statistically significant (p<0.05) effect of different cooking techniques on the physicochemical and sensorial properties of cooked potato, carrot, and cultivated mushroom samples was found. The eGI values of the samples were ranged in 42.82-68.50 and had low (<55) glycemic indexes, with the exception of deep-fried carrot samples. With the cooking process, a decrease was observed in the antioxidant activity and total phenolic content of the samples. The sensory analysis results determined that the panelists gave higher scores to the deep-fried samples than the baked samples. In addition, the general acceptance scores of deep-fried products were higher. As a result, the baking process is recommended for the preservation of physicochemical properties of the samples, although deep frying provided higher scores for sensorial properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The process of deep‐frying brings about significant physicochemical changes in the color and moisture content of foods, influenced by heat and mass transfer phenomena. Achieving consistent quality in fried foods, such as nuggets, fries, and chicken pies, is challenging, highlighting the importance of predicting these changes. This study delves into the evolving dynamics of color and moisture content, specifically in French fries during deep frying. To model these changes, the study employs a first‐order kinetic equation for color and moisture content, utilizing numerical solutions like the Runge–Kutta fourth‐order method as well as the Nelder–Mead algorithm in MATLAB. The Arrhenius equation plays a key role in this model. The modified model is compared against an existing model using the root mean square error (RMSE) and Akaike information criterion (AIC). Note that the investigation evaluates how oil temperature (at 150, 170, and 190°C) as well as sample thickness (at 5, 10, and 15 mm) impact the French fries' moisture and color content during frying. Results indicate that the modified model, with its improved accuracy and lower RMSE and AIC values compared to the existing model, provides a more reliable tool for understanding the frying process. Consequently, the inclusion of a user‐friendly graphical interface (GUI) makes this modeling approach accessible even to those with limited mathematical or programming expertise, benefiting professionals seeking more profound insights into the frying process. Practical applications: The graphical user interface (GUI) for predicting deep‐fried food quality presented in this study holds broad industrial applications. It serves as a pivotal tool in the food industry for ensuring consistent quality across products like fries and nuggets, enabling manufacturers to optimize frying processes. Fast‐food chains can use the GUI to minimize costs and energy consumption while maintaining product quality. In addition, it aids in equipment calibration, becoming an invaluable asset for operators seeking optimal performance and longevity in deep‐frying equipment. Culinary schools benefit from this GUI as an educational tool, offering aspiring chefs a practical understanding of deep‐frying science. Researchers and food scientists can accelerate R&D cycles by efficiently assessing the impact of variables. SMEs, regulatory bodies, and food retailers find utility in the GUI for quality control, compliance, and consumer education, collectively contributing to industry transparency, sustainability, and improved global health outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Thermal processing of food has the potential to produce a number of unwanted chemical substances. One of these compounds that is created is acrylamide (in starch-rich foods). Additionally, it has a potential to cause cancer in rodents and in humans. Chocolate, potato, bakery foods, coffee, and chocolate products are the main dietary sources of acrylamide exposure. The fresh ingredient utilised most frequently in frying processes is potato, because of high global consumer demand. Ever since it was discovered in foods, acrylamide's mechanism and mitigation have drawn the attention of various investigations. Additionally, different frying techniques, such as deep frying, microwave frying, and air frying, have a direct impact on the development of acrylamide in products. In-depth details on acrylamide generation, incidence, dietary exposure, toxicity, and mitigation during the frying process are provided in the current work. Graphical Abstract

Thermal processing of food has the potential to produce a number of unwanted chemical substances. One of these compounds that is created is acrylamide (in starch-rich foods). Additionally, it has a potential to cause cancer in rodents and in humans. Chocolate, potato, bakery foods, coffee, and chocolate products are the main dietary sources of acrylamide exposure. The fresh ingredient utilised most frequently in frying processes is potato, because of high global consumer demand. Ever since it was discovered in foods, acrylamide's mechanism and mitigation have drawn the attention of various investigations. Additionally, different frying techniques, such as deep frying, microwave frying, and air frying, have a direct impact on the development of acrylamide in products. In-depth details on acrylamide generation, incidence, dietary exposure, toxicity, and mitigation during the frying process are provided in the current work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep-fat frying is a widely discussed topic globally in the field of food processing due to the growing consumer demand. These foods are known for their appealing outer appearance, crispy texture, and rich taste. The increased consumption of deep-fat fried foods has raised concerns regarding potential health issues, as they are often high in calories and may contain unfavorable compounds formed during the process of deep frying. This review aims to provide an overview of previous studies examining the physical, chemical, and nutritional changes that occur in fried foods, the mechanisms of fat uptake during frying, and the health implications associated with the consumption of these foods. This increasing rate in consumption has been linked to various adverse health conditions. There has been a significant research focus on reducing the fat content in deep fried foods, particularly investigating the process of fat uptake during deep-fat frying. It is crucial to increase consumer awareness regarding the potential problems arising from excessive intake of deep-fat fried foods. Furthermore, further studies are needed to meet the rising demand for deep-fat fried foods while minimizing the impact on health and preserving their desirable taste. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explored six Oyaki dumpling variants, different heating methods and expansion agents, through bubble observation, sensory evaluations (addressing hardness, crispness, fluffiness, and chewiness), and previously reported physical measurements. Oyaki with bulking agents showed large bubbles, particularly in steamed and fried versions, whereas those without bulking agent had finer bubbles and a lower bubble ratio. The characteristics of these bubbles were closely linked to sensory perceptions and physical properties, with a notable correlation between bubble proportion and both fluffiness (positive) and hardness (negative). Baked (ash-baked) Oyaki ranked as the hardest and crunchiest, while steaming Oyaki, with added dilatants, was identified as the fluffiest. Furthermore, both baked and steamed forms had a high level of chewiness. A questionnaire on texture perception highlighted distinct expressions for each Oyaki type. Each Oyaki type was further analyzed through principal component analysis to classify Oyaki into categories based on hardness and moisture. The findings underscore the significant impact of heating methods (steaming, grilling, deep frying) and bulking agents on Oyaki texture. This insight into Oyaki's textural characteristics could guide manufacturers in selecting appropriate heating techniques and bulking agents to achieve specific textures, and influence decisions on production methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: As a by‐product of the palm oil industry, palm stearin is often overlooked despite having several beneficial properties, such as excellent stability, which is critically essential to meet the demand of the global food trend in producing safer processed food. Specifically, deep frying of food is often associated with the production of toxic compounds that could potentially migrate into the food system when oils are degraded under continuous heating. The incorporation of palm stearin is regarded as a cost‐effective and efficient method to modify the fatty acid composition of oils, enhance the frying qualities and lower the degradation rate. RESULTS: This study blended 5% and 10% palm stearin into palm oil to investigate the deep‐frying performance and impact on food quality. Increasing the palm stearin content improved the frying oil's oxidative and hydrolytic stability, evidenced by reduction of total polar material, free fatty acid and total oxidation value. Addition of palm stearin increased the slip melting point which improved the oil's oxidative stability but no significant increase in oil content of instant noodles was observed. Scanning electron microscopy and fluorescence microscopy showed the formation of larger pores in the noodle structure that facilitated oil retention. CONCLUSION: Blending palm stearin into frying oil enhanced the frying stability and minimally affected the oil uptake in instant noodles. This article presents the viability of blending palm stearin into frying oils to develop longer‐lasting frying oils. © 2024 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to analyze the mineral profiles, physicochemical and sensory properties of pumpkin dough chips (PDC), made from pumpkin pulp (Cucurbita moschata) and a combination of hazelnut and grain meals fried by oven (OF), microwave (CMWF) and deep frying (DF). The experiment was established by 36 samples, including formulations (F = 4), frying techniques (FT = 3) and replications (R = 3). The effect of F, FT and F × FT factors on the moisture, ash, protein, oil, hydroxymethylfurfural, phenolics, DPPH-RSA, TEAC, β-carotene, Hunter L*, a*, b*, browning index, hardness, fracturability and minerals of PDC were found significant statistically (P < 0.05). As a result of ICP-MS analysis of PDCs, K, Na, Ca, Mg, and Si minerals were higher than other minerals. While the OF chips had most appreciated, panellists found the DF chips oily. Also, there was a harmony between the pumpkin in the PDC and the cereal flours and hazelnuts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep frying (DF) is a popular cooking technique resulting in desirable sensory quality. However, DF also results in negative perception related to increased fat uptake and thus poor nutritional quality. In this study, a development of a novel strategy for fat reduction in DF surimi without additives and coatings was attempted. Novel pre-baking and pre-roasting were applied to surimi prior to DF. This novel pre-treatment strategy for DF surimi has not been reported in literature. Total, free, and bonded fat contents and corresponding fat reductions in DF surimi were determined. Cook and moisture losses as well as water holding capacity, expressible moisture, in addition to color and texture were also investigated. Fat uptake during DF of surimi was reduced (P 0.05) affect cook and moisture losses, water holding capacity, expressible moisture, color, and texture. However, pre-roasting increased (P

The aim is to evaluate the antioxidant efficiency of oregano essential oils (OEOs) and hops essential oils (HEOs) in a deep frying process of high‐oleic peanuts in high‐oleic peanut oil. There is no information available regarding the antioxidant behavior in deep frying. A combined vegetable oil/food system with high levels of lipids is susceptible to oxidation. High‐oleic peanut oil and high‐oleic peanuts are susceptible to oxidation involved in frying. The antioxidant effect of HEO and OEO was proved in frying peanut process (170°C) in peanut oil enriched at 0.02% p/p and compared with butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) (0.02%) and control (without additives) during 8 h. Chemical oxidation indicators and volatile compounds were measured. 2,5‐Dimethylpyrazine (2,5‐DMP) and descriptive sensory analysis were measured in fried peanuts. High‐oleic peanut and oil are very stable in a frying process. OEOs and HEOs protected against the deterioration of the high‐oleic peanut oil: Peroxide value was 3.7, 2.8, 3.1, and 1.3 meq O2 kg−1 for control, BHT, HOP, and OEO, respectively. The addition of essential oils (EO) maintained the 2,5‐DMP in the fried peanuts. The use of EO of oregano and hop improves the stability of high‐oleic frying oil. Practical Applications: Deep frying processes generate the deterioration of the vegetable oils used for cooking food. This deterioration reduces the shelf life of the frying oil and the quality of the food, even generating compounds that are toxic to the health of consumers. Antioxidants are used as measures that can help to reduce spoilage, but synthetics are being questioned. Natural products offer an alternative and essential oils, due to their high hydrophobic interaction with the oils, generate a strong interaction, remaining in the frying oil for its protection even at high‐temperature thermal processes. This alternative is a possibility because of the protection it generates in the deep frying process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two Indian rice cultivars, namely Sonasakthi (SS) and Gobindbhog (GB), were hydrated for 6, 12 and 18 h of soaking time and temperature of 30, 40 and 50 °C to analyse the physicochemical and structural properties of rice flour. The moisture content of flour ranged between 14.18 and 20.71% among various soaking treatments and increased significantly with soaking time at all temperatures. The amylose content was found to be decreasing at a higher soaking temperature of 50 °C. Swelling power of rice flour was found to be increasing with increased soaking temperature and time varied from 1.821 to 1.911% for SS and from 1.743 to 1.924% for GB. Since the gel consistency values are directly correlated with amylose content, for SS it was highest (133.79 mm) at 40 °C. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimise soaking conditions, resulting in an intermediate soaking temperature (40 °C) and the shortest soaking time (6 h) being preferred for SS with desirability of 0.696. Morphological changes show typical A type crystalline structure and deformed fractions under optimised soaking condition. Correlation matrix displays the correlation coefficient of rice flour under various hydration conditions in which flow properties were mutually linked. Multivariate analysis in terms of principal component analysis (PCA) and Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) also illustrates the association among variables and hydration conditions. Thus, the soaking condition of rice provides desired properties that can contribute to the development of rice flour based deep fat fried products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High levels of acrylamide have been detected in French fries and potato crisps. The main pathway for acrylamide formation is from free asparagine and reducing sugars in the Maillard reaction. Asparagine provides the backbone of the acrylamide molecule. The rate of acrylamide formation increases significantly when asparagine is heated with carbonyl compounds such as reducing sugars. According to current knowledge, thermal load applied during processing in terms of temperature and duration has a significant influence on acrylamide formation in potato products depending on the concentrations of total reducing sugars and free asparagine in potato tubers. Glucose and fructose contents are generally regarded as a good indicator of the acrylamide forming potential of potato tubers. The latest regulation from the European Commission requires that food business operators take mitigation measures to lower the acrylamide content of their products below benchmark values. Therefore, efforts should be directed to reduce the amount of acrylamide formed in potato products. Excessive accumulation of acrylamide in potato products can be prevented during processing if the exposure of the product surface to high temperatures is limited. This is possible with temperature-programmed frying, which targets outer crust layers and cooked interiors for French fries. The same effect can be obtained by blanching potato strips in the microwave for a few seconds before deep frying. Combined technologies, such as partial baking followed by radio frequency post-drying, can also be used to control acrylamide formation during processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the prevalence and occurrence of 3-monochloropropanediol esters (3-MCPDEs) and glycidyl esters (GEs) in domestically and commercially prepared food in Singapore and assessed the total dietary exposure for the Singaporean population. Minimal impact on the formation of 3-MCPDEs and GEs was observed from the domestic cooking methods commonly practiced in Singapore such as deep frying and stir frying. The estimated total dietary exposure to 3-MCPDEs for the Singaporean population (aged 15 to 92) was 0.982 µg/kg bw/day for general consumers and 2.212 µg/kg bw/day for high consumers (95th percentile), which accounted for 49.1% and 110.6% of the tolerable dietary intake (TDI) at 2 µg/kg bw/day by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The calculated margins of exposure (MOE) for GEs based on the dietary exposure for general consumers at 0.882 µg/kg bw/day and 2.209 µg/kg bw/day for high consumers were below 10,000, indicating a potential health concern. Our study showed that the occurrence of 3-MCPDEs and GEs varied among vegetable oils, and domestic cooking methods did not significantly impact the levels of 3-MCPDEs and GEs in prepared food. The critical factor influencing the prevalence and occurrence of 3-MCPDEs and GEs was the choice of oil used for cooking, which absorbed into the cooked food. It is essential to encourage the food industry to continue its innovation on mitigation measures to control and reduce 3-MCPDEs and GEs in vegetable oil production. Consumers are advised to make informed choices on food consumption and cooking oil for food preparation to reduce their exposure to 3-MCPDEs and GEs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sunflower oil (SFO) is faced with serious oxidation problems during the deep-frying of Chinese Maye, and the search for natural antioxidants has become a focus of scientific research due to the potential toxicity of synthetic antioxidants. In the present study, the Foeniculum vulgare Mill. essential oil (FVEO), tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) were added to SFO for a 30 h deep frying experiment and the results showed that FVEO added to sunflower oil at 1 g/kg was similar to that of TBHQ-0.01 g/kg, and FVEO-1.5 g/kg would promote the oxidation of SFO. FVEO to sunflower oil also prominently restrained the decrease of the sensory properties of the fried product, Chinese Maye, including appearance, taste, flavor and overall acceptance by 24.2%, 20.2%, 46.1% and 56.0% (p < 0.01 or p < 0.05), respectively. The results indicated that FVEO could be used as a natural antioxidant to replace TBHQ in the deep-frying process of SFO, but further research is needed on the key antioxidant constituent of FVEO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionThe nutritional value of duck meat is well acknowledged due to its low cholesterol and high protein content. Nevertheless, the impacts of deep-frying and baking on its quality characteristics are not extensively documented in literature.MethodsThe objective of this study is to examine the effects of deep-frying, pre-boilingdeep-frying, baking, and pre-boiling-baking on the quality attributes, water distribution, microstructure, and flavor characteristics of duck jerky.Results and discussionThe findings revealed that the deep-frying group had better quality attributes than the baking, pre-boiling-deep-frying, and pre-boiling-baking groups. The deepfried duck jerky had a higher a* value (4.25) and a lower b* value (5.87), with a more appropriate texture profile, and had the highest comprehensive impression score (5.84). Moreover, the drying rate was faster, and the intensity of the free water and oil signal was significantly elevated in the deep-frying group. The microstructure results indicated that the muscle fibers in the deep-frying group were closely packed, whereas those in the baking group were relatively loose. Furthermore, the GC-IMS test revealed that the deep-fried duck jerky had a wider range of volatile flavor compounds, including 11 unique compounds that were only found in this particular product.

IntroductionPresent study investigates the effects of different home pre-treatment processes and cooking techniques on the acrylamide content of fried potatoes.MethodsPotato sticks were prepared in two different pre-treatment ways (washing and soaking) and cooked with three other techniques (air frying, deep frying, and oven frying). Acrylamide analyses were performed on cooked potatoes using an LC-MS/MS method.ResultsThe highest acrylamide content was found in potatoes cooked using the air fryer (12.19 ± 7.03 μg/kg). This was followed by deep frying (8.94 ± 9.21 μg/kg) and oven frying (7.43 ± 3.75 μg/kg). However, the difference between the acrylamide contents of the potatoes according to the cooking methods was not statistically significant. The acrylamide content of the potatoes that were subjected to soaking in all three ways was lower than the potatoes that were not soaked and only washed. In the deep-frying method, it was found statistically significant that the soaked potatoes contained less acrylamide (p = 0.029).DiscussionIt is important to highlight the relatively low acrylamide levels found in oven-frying, lower than air frying in both washing and soaking groups in the present study. Although air fryers, which have become widely used as an alternative to deep frying in recent years, provide French fries with less oil, their role in the formation of acrylamide should be further investigated.

White button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) is widely used in cooking and has good nutritional value. Today, the demand for fried edible mushrooms is increasing. Edible coatings can reduce oil uptake and improve the quality characteristics of fried products. In this study, the effect of wheat flour (0, 1, 2 and 3% w/v), corn flour (0, 1, 2 and 3% w/v) and Aloe vera gel (0, 10, 20 and 30% w/v) on the quality attributes of mushroom during deep fat frying were investigated. The results showed that different coating materials decreased oil absorption in the final product (p<0.05). The lowest amount of oil uptake was observed for samples coated with 3% of wheat flour and 1% corn flour and 10% Aloe vera gel. Also, the used coatings agents improved frying efficiency, moisture content and sensorial properties of fried mushroom (p<0.05). Colorimetric results showed that the Aloe vera and wheat flour coatings, increased L (brightness) and ΔΕ (color difference). The highest a value (redness) was observed in samples coated with 3% wheat flour and the lowest a value was related to the samples coated with 3% corn flour. The highest amount of b value (yellowness) was observed in the control sample. The results showed that the use of the aloe vera gel, wheat and corn flour coatings improved the quality properties of fried mushrooms. Therefore, the use of edible coatings seems necessary in production of low-fat fried mushroom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this research, the extraction of polyphenols from Convolvulus arvensis (CA) leaves was optimized using ethanol (80%) at plant/solvent ratios and extraction times which varied between 1/10 to 1/30 (w/v) and 20 to 120 min, respectively. The extract with the highest polyphenol content was obtained at a ratio of 1/30 and 90 min. At 120 ppm, the preceding extract in either lyophilized (LyCAE) or encapsulated (EnCAE) form was evaluated as an antioxidant during the frying process using sunflower oil in comparison to TBHQ. Frying oil quality indices including refractive index, smoke point, acid value, anisidine value, polar and polymer compounds were monitored throughout frying times. FTIR spectroscopy was used to investigate the changes in trans-fatty acids, hydroperoxides and aldehyde contents. The results showed that the phenolic extract, especially in EnCAE form, exhibited superior antioxidant activity over TBHQ, which consequently led to the utilization of this phenolic extract as an antioxidant in frying oils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work aimed to search for alternative uses for different varieties of Andean potatoes (Solanum tuberosum ssp andigenum) which have been reintroduced in north-western Argentina. Specifically, the development of simple and compound films made with hydrocolloids such as carboxymethyl-cellulose (CMC) and starch (S) extracted from Andean potatoes var. Runa, and its application as a cover in the deep frying of Andean potato chips var. Waycha was studied to minimize oil absorption. The effect of prior bleaching of the chips with different media was also evaluated: water, calcium chloride solution, and ascorbic acid. The coatings were applied to potatoes chips before being fried. The results showed that the type of oil used did not affect absorption by the chips. The bleaching treatments with calcium chloride and coating with S/CMC, showed a significant reduction in oil absorption (39.5 % ± 0.7), delayed its oxidation, and decreased the loss of tocopherols during the frying process. It also contributed to the physical and sensory characteristics of the final product, which presented high acceptability by consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grasshopper is a micro livestock, rich in animal protein that is consumed as a delicacy, processed using deep-frying as a popular cooking method. The 100 g each of fried grasshopper (Oedalense senegalenes krauss) consisted of 4 treatments of laboratory single session deep-fried grasshoppers in covered utensils using commercial refined vegetable oil at 160°C for 2 minutes were used as control; while non-control samples were locally purchased from 3 ready-to-eat repeated-sessions of deep-fried grasshopper retail outlets in Maiduguri opposite Post Office, Wulari and Bulumkuttu respectively. Samples of grasshoppers were ground to powder and oil was extracted using soxhlet method and analyzed for quality to identify primary functional groups using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometer. Distance variation in aberration characteristics of non-control oils indicated strong wide band for the O-H stretch around 2540 cm-1 (2500-3300 cm-1) for the carbonyl functional group and a strong C-N stretch (1180-1360 cm11) which produced heterocyclic aromatic amine (HAA). Both functional groups constitute a serious health risk in overheated oil. For food safety and public health advocacy when cooking, frying oil should be discarded after one time use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the present study was to increase the frying stability of refined safflower oil (RSO) by blending it with refined olive pomace oil (ROPO) during deep fat frying. For this purpose; RSO, ROPO and their blends were utilized for frying of potato sticks at 180°C for 3 consecutive days. The frying stability of the oils was monitored by analyzing them for their free fatty acids, peroxide values, total polar contents, ultraviolet spectrophotometric indices at 232 and 270 nm, fatty acid profiles, p-anisidine values, α- tocopherol contents and photometric color indices. 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and glycidyl ester (GE) levels of oils before and after frying were measured as well. The results have shown that thermooxidative degradation products increased as the frying progressed for all oils, however the decomposition rate was found to slow down in blend oils by stabilizing with ROPO. Blending RSO with ROPO decreased linoleic and linolenic; but increased the oleic and palmitic acid percentages of the blends. C18:2/C16:0 ratio was found to decrease by frying for RSO and the blend oils, however ROPO was not affected significantly. 3-MCPD-E levels of the blends increased as the ratio of ROPO increased. Principal component analysis enabled a clear discrimination between oils with different composition throughout the frying process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, people's tendency to consume healthy and low energy foods has led to the development of new cooking techniques. The air fryer is a consumer-accepted cooking appliance that has emerged in the last 10 years. These devices allow frying with less oil addition compared to conventional frying techniques. In this way, foods with lower energy value and fat content can be obtained compared to deep fat frying. Although deep fat frying is one of the oldest cooking techniques, it can cause hesitation by consumers due to the high fat content of the cooked product and the formation of some undesirable components (acrylamide, etc.) in the food during the process. The growth of interest in healthy eating in recent years has also led to a limitation in the consumption of such foods. The aim of this review is to examine the studies on air fried and deep fried foods and to explain the physical, chemical and sensory qualities obtained in line with the literature data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rising concern about the presence of 3-monochloropropane 1,2 diol ester (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl ester (GE) in food has prompted much research to be conducted. Some process modifications and the use of specific chemicals have been employed to mitigate both 3-MCPDE and GE. Alkalisation using NaOH, KOH, alkali metals or alkaline earth metals and post sparging with steam or ethanol and short path distillation have shown simultaneous mitigation of 51-91% in 3-MCPDE and of 13-99% in GE, both contaminants achieved below 1000 µg/kg. Some of the mitigation methods have resulted in undesirable deterioration in other parameters of the refined oil. When the processed oil is used in food processing, it results in changes to 3-MCPDE and GE. Repeated deep frying above 170 °C in the presence of NaCl and baking at 200 °C with flavouring (dried garlic and onion), resulted in increased 3-MCPDE. Repeated frying in the presence of antioxidants (TBHQ, rosemary and phenolics) decreased 3-MCPDE in processed food. The GE content in foods tends to decline with time, indicating instability of GE's epoxide ring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The potential of Fluorescence spectroscopy has been utilized for the quality analysis of canola and mustard oil along with the effect of heating on their molecular composition has been investigated. Laser diode at 405 nm has been employed directly to oil surface to excite both oil type samples and their emission spectra has been recorded by an in-house developed Fluorosensor. The emission spectra of both oil types unveiled that they contain carotenoids, isomers of vitamin E and chlorophylls that exhibit their fluorescence at 525 and 675/720 nm, and these can be used as markers for their quality assurance. Fluorescence spectroscopy is a fast, reliable and non-destructive analytical technique for the quality assessment of both oil types. Moreover, the effect of temperature on their molecular composition has been investigated by heating them at 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 170, 180 and 200 °C, each sample for 30 min which was done because both oils are used for cooking and frying. On heating, the deterioration of carotenoids and isomers of vitamin E in both oil types occurred with an increase in the oxidised products. However, it was found that up to 150 °C, both oil types can be used safely for cooking/frying purpose where they do not lose much of their valuable ingredients and up to 180 °C for deep frying, both oils can be used with less deterioration and after that both deteriorated much due to rapid increase of the oxidized products. The portable Fluorosensor, therefore, proved as an excellent device for quality screening of edible oils based on carotenoids and vitamin E. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Thermoxidation of edible oil through deep fat frying results in the generation of several oxidized products that promote lipid peroxidation and ROS production when eaten. Consumption of thermoxidized oil in post-menopausal conditions where the estrogen level is low contributes to cardiovascular disease. This study evaluates the role of estradiol and antihyperlipidemic agents (AHD) in restoring the vascular health of ovariectomized (OVX) rats fed with thermoxidized palm oil (TPO) and thermoxidized soya oil (TSO) diets. Method: A total of 10 groups of rats (n = 6) were set up for the experiment. Group I (normal control) rats were sham handled while other groups were OVX to bring about estrogen deficient post-menopausal state. Group II (OVX only) was not treated and received normal rat chow. Groups III-X were fed with either TPO or TSO diet for 12 weeks and treated with estradiol (ETD) 0.2 mg/kg/day, atorvastatin (ATV) 10 mg/kg/day, and a fixed-dose combination of ezetimibe and ATV (EZE 3 mg/kg/day + ATV 10 mg/kg/day). Results: Pro-atherogenic lipids levels were significantly elevated in untreated TSO and TPO groups compared to OVX and sham, resulting in increased atherogenic and Coronary-risk indices. Treatment with Estradiol and AHDs significantly reduced the total cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol as well as AI and CRI compared to untreated TSO and TPO groups, whereas TSO and TPO groups showed significant elevation in these parameters compared to Group I values. Moreover, aortic TNF-α levels were extremely elevated in the untreated TSO and TPO compared to Group I. TNF-α levels were significantly reduced in rats treated with AHDs and ETD. Localized oxidative stress was indicated in the aortic tissues of TSO and TPO-fed OVX rats by increased malondialdehyde and decreased glutathione, catalase, and superoxide dismutase levels. This contributed to a depletion in aortic nitric oxide. AHDs and ETD replenished the nitric oxide levels significantly. Histological evaluation of the aorta of TSO and TPO rats revealed increased peri-adventitia fat, aortic medial hypertrophy, and aortic recanalization. These pathologic changes were less seen in AHDs and ETD rats. Conclusion: This study suggests that ETD and AHDs profoundly attenuate oxidized lipid-induced vascular inflammation and atherogenesis through oxidative-stress reduction and inhibition of TNF-α signaling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fresh potatoes were deep-fried in olive oil (OO), extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), and their blends with 5%, 10%, and 20% v/v sesame oil (SO). This is the first report on the use of sesame oil as a natural source of antioxidants during olive oil deep frying. The oil was evaluated for anisidine value (AV), free fatty acids (FFAs), extinction coefficient (K232 and K270), Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), and total phenols (TPs) until the total polar compounds (TPCs) reached 25%. Sesame lignan transformations were monitored through reversed-phase HPLC. While the TPCs in olive oils increased at a steady rate, the addition of 5%, 10%, and 20% v/v SO delayed TPCs' formation for 1, 2, and 3 h, respectively. The addition of 5%, 10%, and 20% v/v SO increased the olive oil frying time by 1.5 h, 3.5 h, and 2.5 h, respectively. The addition of SO to OO reduced the secondary oxidation products' formation rate. The AV for EVOO was lower than OO and all tested blends, even those with EVOO. EVOO was more resistant to oxidation than OO, as measured by the TPCs and TEAC, while the frying time rose from 21.5 to 25.25 h when EVOO replaced OO. The increase in frying time for OO but not for EVOO, after SO addition, points to a niche market for EVOO in deep frying. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are of petrogenic or pyrogenic origin. Of the known few hundred PAHs, 16 are identified to be toxic, of which 8 are teratogenic. Of the 8, 4 are carcinogens. Among them, Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) possesses the highest carcinogenicity and is used as a marker in toxicity studies. PAHs of petrogenic origin contaminate soil, water and air. They may occur in air associated with dust particles. PAHs of pyrogenic origin are generated during burning of wood and other organic matter. They are also produced from lipids and carbohydrates during heating of foods. PAHs are mostly identified with grilling, smoking, frying, roasting and toasting of foods. Among the foods, formation of PAHs is studied mostly in association with grilling of fish and meat, where contacts occur between the dripping lipids and naked flames. The generated PAHs get deposited back on fish and meat muscles. PAHs in smoke are deposited on food surfaces on exposure to contaminated air from the vehicle fumes and smoke curing of foods. PAHs are formed during mechanical expulsion of edible oils. Presence of markers, carcinogenic PAHs and total PAHs in different foods and their extent of formation and deposition is discussed in relation to food safety hazards and health implications. Among the local foods and food preparation habits, the role of coconut oil, smoke curing of foods and formation of PAHs even under mild conditions of heat such as manufacture of black tea are reviewed. Recommendations for future actions, research and implementing food regulations to minimize PAHs in foods are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study aimed to compare the effects of three different frying methods, namely air frying (AF), microwave frying (MF), and deep frying (DF) in corn oil, on the moisture and texture, as well as the content and absorption of oil, carbohydrates and acrylamide in French fries. Materials and Methods: For the DF, the fresh potatoes were fully dipped in corn oil and the oil temperature was set at 160 °C for three intervals of 3, 5, and 7 minutes. In the MF, the oil was preheated to 180 °C for three time intervals of 160, 180, and 200 seconds. The AF was set at a temperature of 170 °C for three time intervals of 8, 10, and 12 minutes, without adding oil. Results: The results showed that AF resulted in a lower acrylamide content (21.8 ppm) after 8 minutes at 170°C compared to the other frying methods. However, DF in corn oil was preferred in terms of color, flavor, and overall acceptance in the sensory evaluation of the French fries. MF resulted in the hardest French fry texture due to excessive evaporation of moisture. Conclusion: The findings suggest that AF may be a healthier option with a lower acrylamide content, while DF in corn oil may be preferred for its superior sensory characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Chinese Institute of Food Science & Technology is the property of Journal of Chinese Institute of Food Science & Technology Periodical Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Food Research & Development is the property of Food Research & Development Editorial Department and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Ghee is used for making various sweets and dishes in addition to its various culinary purposes. In the course of such preparations, ghee is subjected to different degrees of heat treatment which on combining with air can undergo considerable physico-chemical changes. The high temperature cooking process creates a series of complex chemical reactions in ghee which affects the sensory and the functional properties of foods as well as the ghee used. This leads to adverse health effects on consumers. One of the best ways to protect ghee from autooxidation and thermal oxidation is by the incorporation of antioxidants during their processing. Addition of synthetic antioxidants is restricted in several countries. Scientific investigations have also found that the use of synthetic antioxidants in foods may harm the liver and lead to the development of cancer. The aim of the present study was to check the effect of curry leaves (Murraya koeneigii) extract on the thermal stability of ghee. Based on the peroxide and thiobarbituric acid (TBA) value determinations, it was observed that quality of ghee samples added with 1 % CLE during frying was significantly higher than that of control (ghee without antioxidant) and ghee added with 0.02 % BHA (a synthetic antioxidant). At 15 minutes of frying (180°C), the peroxide value was 3.615±0.24, 1.04±0.10 and1.07±0.02 mM O2/kg fat for the control, BHA added and CLE added ghee respectively and this increased to 8.23±0.23, 6.47±0.21 and 4.0±0.01 mM O2/kg fat after 60 minutes of frying, respectively. Findings suggested that CLE could be used as a source of natural antioxidants for imparting thermal stability to ghee during frying.

In indoor environments, cooking is a major contributor to indoor air pollution releasing potentially harmful toxic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In our study, Chlorophytum comosum 'Variegata' plants were applied to monitor PAH emission rates and patterns in previously selected rural Hungarian kitchens. Concentration and profile of accumulated PAHs could be well explained by cooking methods and materials used in each kitchen. Accumulation of 6-ring PAHs was characteristic in the only kitchen which frequently used deep frying. It also should be emphasized that applicability of C. comosum as indoor biomonitor was assessed. The plant has proven a good monitor organism as it accumulated both LMW and HMW PAHs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep-fried foods are among the foods that are increasing in popularity both in the food industry and in domestic applications. While these foods stand out due to their sensory properties, oxidative alterations in frying oils cause concern. This study analysed the thermo-oxidative alterations that occur during deep frying with 10 commonly used culinary oils. Deep frying processes (180 ± 5°C) were carried out with a total of one liter of each type of oil and 100-g potatoes at every turn (sliced into 1 cm ∗ 1 cm ∗ 6 cm pieces). The process was carried out keeping the conditions constant for all oils and was repeated 10 times consecutively for all oils. The malondialdehyde and peroxide values of vegetable ghee (VG) were found to be 0.669 nmol/g and 21.0 mEqO2/kg, respectively, and were higher than those of other oils. Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) (232.23) had the highest iodine value, while hazelnut oil (HO) (27.92) had the lowest value. While total polar compounds were within legal limits in all oils, they were higher (17%–23%) in EVOO, palm oil (PO), VG, and refined olive pomace oil than in other oils (17%–23%). As a result of this study, the thermo-oxidative changes in frying made with sunflower oil types are less than those of other oils, and the oxidative product/polar compound levels, which have adverse effects on health, are close to the legal limit in some oils (PO, VG, refined olive pomace, and corn oil). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to examine the effect of using oleogel as a frying medium on the quality of coated and deep-fried chicken products. Sunflower oil-based oleogels prepared with 0.5%, 1%, 1.5% and 2% carnauba wax were produced for deep frying of coated chicken products and were compared to sunflower and commercial frying oil based on palm oil. The increased carnauba wax concentration in the oleogel decreased the pH, oil, oil absorbance and TBARS value of coated chicken (p < 0.05). Samples deepfried with oleogels containing 1.5% and 2% carnauba wax had the lowest pH values. In addition, since the oil absorption during deep-frying was significantly reduced in these groups (1.5 and 2%), the fat contents of coated products were also lower (p < 0.05). The use of oleogel as a frying medium did not cause a significant change in the color values of the coated chicken products. However, the increased carnauba wax concentration in the oleogel increased the hardness of coated chicken (p < 0.05). As a result, sunflower oilbased oleogels with a carnauba wax content of 1.5% and higher which is healthier in terms of saturated fat content can be used as frying media and can be improved the quality of coated and deep-fried chicken products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The demand for vegetable oils is on the increase. Deep frying is the commonest method by which vegetable oils are consumed. The aim of this study was to extract oil from an underutilized oil seed and compare its physicochemical properties, frying, and oxidative stability with those of commercial refined palm oil. Methods: Oil was extracted from Monodora myristica seeds using a soxhlet fat extractor and the percentage oil yield was determined. The physicochemical, oxidative, and frying stabilities of the extracted M. myristica Seed Oil (MMSO) were evaluated based on the standard procedure of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists and official methods and recommended practices of the American Oil Chemists Society and compared with those of commercial refined palm oil-Kings Vegetable Oil (KVO). Data were statistically analyzed using SPSS version 20. Results: The oil yield of M. myristica seed was 37.64%. The refractive index, specific gravity, moisture content (%), and peroxide value (mEq/kg) were respectively 1.470, 1.468, 0.923, and 0.917 for MMSO; and 0.220, 0.253, 1.05, and 3.50 for KVO. MMSO had better oxidative stability and showed 80% lesser peroxide formation than KVO. The frying stability of MMSO was better as it showed a lower increase in FFA (28.4%) and peroxide value (9.54 mEq/kg) than KVO (45.99% and 26.19 mEq/kg, respectively) after frying. Conclusion: Deteriorative effect of oxidation and polymerization was lower in MMSO than in KVO indicating MMSO to be superior frying oil suitable for repeated frying. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study aims to produce coated watermelon rind chips with the approach of reducing oil absorption and optimal use of waste and investigating its physicochemical, textural, and sensory characteristics. The effect of coating with basil seed gum, Tragacanth gum, pectin, and coating formulation with corn flour on oil absorption rate, moisture loss, and color of white skin slices of fried watermelon was studied. The results indicated that due to the controlling role of water in the amount of oil absorption, the amount of oil in all the samples coated with gum and corn flour was decreased compared to the samples coated with gum and the samples without coating. The pretreatment of osmotic dehydration reduces oil absorption in compared to fresh and blanched samples. The color changes in the sample with two pre-treatments of osmosis and blanching were less than other samples, as a result, the brightness of this sample was also higher than others. The lowest amount of oil absorption was observed in samples coated with basil gum and 0.5% and 1% corn flour (0.33 and 0.29, respectively). The highest amount of moisture loss during frying was related to the coated samples was observed with the combination of basil gum and corn flour (0.5%) and pectin and corn flour (2%). The highest level of antioxidant activity of the fried samples was related to the sample coated with 0.5% basil gum. Significant color changes were also observed in the coated samples.

Cucur is a traditional food with oily appearance,which may affect the sensory acceptance. Thus, in this research we attempted to reduce its oil absorption by using pregelatinized rice flour as the ingredient for cucur dough. The type of rice and temperature of extrusion process affect the characteristics of pregelatinized rice flour and final products. Thus, the objective of this research was to determine the effect of using pregelatinized rice flour on the oil uptake and sensory of cucur. The type of rice used were IR64 and IR42, and the extrusion process temperatures were 130 and 150°C. The oil uptake by cucur made with pregelatinized rice flour was analyzed during deep frying and sensory analysis was done on the resulting cucur. The results showed that the type of rice, temperature of extrusion, and their interactions had a significant effect on the characteristics and sensory of cucur. A combination of IR42 and 150°C resulted in cucur with 35.97% moisture content, 19.32% fat content, 18.14% moisture loss, 18.14% oil uptake, while the overall sensory attribute was acceptable to the panelists. Use of pregelatinized rice flour resulted in decrease in the oil uptake and moisture loss. Cucur made with pregelatinized rice flour has desirable intensities of sensory attributes (appearance, flavor, texture, and mouthfeel), which result in the higher overall preferences score.

Summary: Vegetable oils rich in PUFAs are widely used in daily cooking and food industry, and PUFAs could be utilised by gut microbiota and present prebiotic effects. However, PUFAs are unstable in high‐temperature cooking like frying. In the current study, we aimed to explore the influence of thermally oxidised oils rich in PUFA on gut microbiota. Two vegetable oils: omega‐3 alpha‐linolenic acid (ALA)‐rich perilla oil or omega‐6 linoleic acid‐rich sunflower oil were heated at 180 °C for 10 h, and then fed to male SD rats for 14 weeks. Administration of heated perilla oil dramatically increased the relative abundance of Akkermansia muciniphila, a recent identified probiotics which may weaken intestinal mucus barrier, and inhibited the expression of several tight junction‐related genes including occludin and claudin‐1 in colon. Consumption of thermally oxidised sunflower oil stimulated the proliferation of Bifidobacterium. Our findings suggested that thermally processing has complicated effects on the prebiotic effects of vegetable oils rich in PUFAs, and perilla oil fried foods may be potential sources to stimulate Akkermansia proliferation in gut. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research aimed to investigate the variability of the acrylamide content in French potato fries depending on the type of oil and the length and conditions of deep-frying. Deep-frozen pre-fried potato French fries primarily intended for catering establishments were deep-fried parallel in two oils (multi-component oil and rapeseed oil) at the same conditions (175 °C/4 min and 200 °C/3 min) until the limit for total polar compounds (TPCs) content (24%) was reached. The samples were analysed immediately after removal from the package, after the first frying and when the TPCs was exceeded. High-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC/ESI-MS/MS) was used to determine acrylamide. Mathematical and statistical evaluation of the results was according to the indicators of descriptive characteristics, i.e., arithmetic mean, standard deviation (SD), and coefficient of variation (%). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare groups, i.e., the assumption of agreement of variance was verified by the F test (F). All pairwise differences in means were tested using Tukey's HSD test (Honest Significantly Different) and Scheffe's test. The critical value of a, compared to the standardized difference between the means, was established using our chosen risk of 5%. The highest acrylamide values were measured in samples deep-fried in rapeseed oil at 200 °C/3 min in sample 2b (451.13 µg/kg when deep-fried immediately) and in sample 2d (383.24 µg/kg after exceeding TPCs). The lowest values of acrylamide were found in samples deep-fried in multi-component oil at a temperature of 200 °C/3 min in sample 1d (183.35 µg/kg after exceeding TPCs) and at a temperature of 175 °C/4 min in sample 1c (240.75 µg/kg after exceeding TPCs). The decreased tendency of acrylamide in both types of oils and variants of temperature after exceeding TPCs compared to the state immediately after frying is confirmed for all samples. Potato-based products are a significant source of acrylamide production and subsequent consumption. Monitoring its presence in food is, therefore, an important legislative requirement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effects of ingredient combination and Post-Frying Centrifugation (PFC) on qualities of low-fat and high fiber-fried snacks were investigated. Wheat Flour (WF), High-Quality Cassava Flour (HQCF) and Corn Bran (CB) were combined in the ratios 92:8:0, 83:12:5, 75:15:10, 62:18:20, 50:20:30, and 40:20:40, respectively. Conditioned blends (moisture content of 37.8%) were rested, sheeted, cut and fried at 170 ± 2°C for 5 min. Some fried matrices were centrifuged for 3 min immediately after frying. Samples with the highest CB had the highest oil uptake (19.91 ± 0.04%) and Total Dietary Fiber (TDF) (20.47 ± 0.41 g/100 g) but expanded least (61.52 ± 13.78%). Oil Uptake (OU), redness, change in color and TDF increased with CB inclusion but OU decreased by 55.21% after PFC. Negative correlation existed between OU and expansion (r = −0.852) and TDF with expansion (r = −0.85) while a positive correlation existed between TDF and OU (r = 0.945). Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) revealed the role of CB in OU. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today, the tendency towards Western World diet characterized by a high consumption of Deep Frying Oil (DFO), as well as female infertility has increased. On the other hand, probiotics are living microorganisms that can benefit human health. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of a probiotic treatment (Lactobacillus plantarum) on the process of follicular growth in rats fed with DFO. Twenty adult female Wistar rats were divided into four groups: control, DFO treatment, DFO treatment group receiving probiotic and the healthy group receiving probiotic for one month. After blood sampling and dissection, ovarian tissue was examined for the number of ovarian follicles at different stages. In addition, the expression of Bmp15 (Gdf-9b) and Gdf9 genes was assessed by the real-time PCR method. The ELISA test was also used to measure hormonal changes (LH and FSH). Data showed that rats treated with DFO had a significant decrease in follicle numbers, hormone levels and Bmp15 and Gdf9 gene expression. Moreover, the number of atretic follicles was increased. Treatment of rats with the probiotic reduced the observed side effects of DFO. Thus, treatments of rats with the probiotic mitigated some of the observed side effects of DFO. An increase in primordial follicles and a reduction of atretic follicles was indicated compared to the DFO group (P ≤ 0.001). Lactobacillus plantarum could reduce the detrimental effects of DFO on folliculogenesis through its beneficial effects. • Fastfoods are often prepared in Deep frying oil (DFO). • DFO had detrimental effect on folliculogenesis. • The expression of Gdf9 and Bmp15 genes was increased in DFO- fed rat. • Probiotic treatment could increase the number of primordial follicles. • Probiotic treatment could mitigate atretic follicles count. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Heat treatment methods including frying (with and without fat or oil), deep frying, oven roasting, grilling, charcoal roasting, broiling, steaming, and microwave cooking promote a cascade of adverse changes in the functional properties of meat, including protein fraction, lipid oxidation, and loss of some vitamins and mineral compounds. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of three cooking methods (sous vide (SV), microwave (M) cooking, and stewing (S)) on the basic chemical composition, cholesterol content, energy value, mineral concentration, and retention coefficients in goose meat. Methods: Basic chemical composition and mineral analysis were determined using AOAC methods. Total cholesterol content was established using the HPLC method. Results: Both types of goose meat (without and with skin) and heat treatment had a significant effect on nutrient values, mineral concentration, and retention coefficients. The S meat was characterized by a higher protein content than M and SV meat, and had the lowest fat, protein, and cholesterol retention, among other methods. The M meat had lower total cholesterol content than SV and S meat. There were significant differences in energy value for SV, M, and S meats. The SV meat contained less P, Mg, Fe, Zn, and more Na and K than the M and S samples. The highest values of Zn, Mg, and Fe content and the lowest of K and Ca were recorded in S meat compared with the SV and M samples. The retention coefficients of P, Mg, Na, Ca, and K in S meat were lower than in the SV and M samples. The meat without skin was characterized by a lower energy value, fat content, retention of proteins, and cholesterol, but higher fat retention than skin samples. This meat contained more minerals such as P, Mg, Fe, K, Na, and less Ca than skin meat. Higher retention coefficients were observed for Zn, P, Mg, Ca, and lower were observed for Na, Fe, and K in meat without skin than in samples with skin. Conclusions: From a dietary point of view, the most beneficial were SV muscles without skin. Whereas, taking into account the protein, fat content, and retention coefficients of fat, cholesterol, Zn, and Na, the most optimal form of cooking for meat with skin seems to be stewing. These results may be used by consumers in making dietary choices by taking into account the type of goose meat and kind of heat treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the mathematical modeling of potato strips during deep fat frying. Initially, three different oil temperatures were selected for the frying process: 150, 160, and 170 °C. Then, a four-channel thermocouple was used to record temperature changes in the sample's surface, center, and bilateral position (left-right part). At 10-s intervals, a data logger recorded the strip temperature. The moisture content and oil absorption of samples were measured at specific time. By increasing the oil temperature, the oil and moisture content of the strips decreased. The surface and center temperatures of the strips were simultaneously modeled and the process's mass and heat transfer equations were presented. The parameters of heat transfer included convective coefficient (h), and mass transfer, including an effective moisture diffusivity (Deff) and the oil diffusivity (DOil), was calculated in the range of 128–515 W/m2.K, 9.1×10−9–1.3×10−8 m2/s, and 1.26×10−5–1.52×10−5 m2/s, respectively. Numerical methods were used to solve mathematical equations for oil and water transfer using Fick's law and for heat transfer using Fourier's law. The results were applied to COMSOL Multiphysics (5,3a), and the resulting profiles were presented. This simulation can assist in maintaining the sample's temperature. The method proposed can aid quality control and prevent the formation of harmful materials during the frying process, which poses a significant health risk at high temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acrylamide is a potential carcinogen produced at higher temperatures while frying, roasting and baking. Starch‐rich foods like potatoes are known to produce acrylamide in increasing concentrations than other kinds of foods. This study focuses on mitigation of acrylamide in sweet potato, taro and cassava samples subjected to various heat‐treatment processes like oil frying, air frying and baking. Dipping of tuber slices in solutions of garlic, green tea, sodium chloride, yeast, distilled water, whey and blanching prior to frying the tubers were found to be effective pre‐treatment methods. However, the effect of the treatments depended on the sample and mode of processing. Yeast was found to produce a significant reduction in the acrylamide production in taro (98.64%) and garlic pretreatment reduced acrylamide in deep fat fried cassava samples up to 95.62%. Similarly, air fried taro samples dipped in distilled water was found to significantly reduce the browning reaction up to 96.51%; primarily due to the fact that distilled water was found to block the reaction between precursors like asparagine and reducing sugars, thereby preventing the formation of acrylamide. Influence of reducing sugar on the formation of acrylamide, when fried at different temperatures was analyzed using Response Surface Methodology (RSM), clearly indicating that the amount of reducing sugars decreased at higher temperatures with increase in acrylamide content. The attempts in the study clearly shows that simple and cost effective pretreatments can be successful applied to produce healthy tuber products with reduced concentration of acrylamide. Practical applications: Fried foods are popular among all age groups. However, the acrylamide produced during its processing is a carcinogen of serious concern. Mitigation of this component is an urgent need. The tested simple and cost‐effective pre‐treatment methods can be applied for acrylamide mitigation in ready‐to‐eat food processing sector. Moreover these can be practically used by street‐food vendors to prepare healthier and safer processed snack foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep frying is the most common method used for food preparation worldwide, which can lead to several chemical changes in used fat or oil in frying process including oxidation and polymerization. This study aimed to determine the effect of heating and different storage conditions on the disposal point of four types of the most common edible oils available in the Iranian market without and with the presence of food in terms of acid value (AV) and total polar compounds (TPC). AV and TPC of three types of marketed sunflower oil (especially for frying, cooking, solid vegetable) and ghee heated at 110, 150, 180, and 200°C with a portable oil meter DOM‐24 (ATAGO, Japan) were determined. They were measured without the presence of food at four different temperatures and four different times in five storage conditions and with the presence of frying food (chicken and potatoes) at 110°C for 20 min in three replicates. The results showed that the AV and TPC contents in the case of ghee were above national and international standards without the presence of food. Also, in the process of frying chicken and potato, the reusability of all the studied oils was not possible for the second time and reached the disposal point. The increase in the rate of AV and TPC of oils was: ghee (Kermanshahi oil) > liquid cooking oil > frying oil ≥ solid vegetable oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]