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Discusses the use of the increasing and decreasing angular velocity testing procedures in the study of the measurements intertrial and test-retest reliability of isokinetic knee extension and flexion strength in eighteen elderly women. Importance of strength and power of functional fitness in the elderly; Collection of isokinetic data; Consistency the isokinetic tests.

Background: Modern pentathlon includes horse riding, fencing, swimming, shooting and cross-country running. Events can last many hours during which the athletes face almost maximal energy and physiological demands, and fatigue. Early recognition and prevention of injuries and overuse syndromes can be achieved by refining the individual training loads. The purpose of the study was to determine which parameter could be the most accurate predictor of swimming working capacity determinants in pentathletes., Methods: Fourteen male pentathletes performed a continuous maximal incremental test in the swimming flume ergometer to measure peak oxygen uptake (VO 2 peak), and five swimming tests in a 50 m swimming pool to detect critical velocity (CV); velocity at 2 and 4 mM·L -1 of blood lactate (v2, v4) and energy cost (EC)., Results: The 200 m swimming time was 2:18-2:32 m:s (340 FINA points). CV was 1.21 ± 0.04 m·s -1 , v2 was 1.14 ± 0.09 and v4 1.23 ± 0.08 m·s -1 . VO 2 peak was 3540.1 ± 306.2 mL·min -1 or 48.8 ± 4.6 mL·kg -1 ·min -1 . EC at 1.24 m·s -1 was 45.7 ± 2.4 mL·kg -1 ·min -1 . Our main finding was the large correlation of CV with 200 m swimming performance; Conclusions: Among all the protocols analysed, CV is the most predictive and discriminative of individual swimming performance in this group of pentathletes. It appears as the most suitable test to constantly refine their swimming training loads for both performance enhancement and health promotion.

Introduction: Swimming represents a crucial capacity for water polo players. Several studies have proposed different protocols to understand the incidence of this capacity on water polo performance and to improve the players' swimming assessment. This work aimed to provide a systematic review regarding the current status of physiological swimming tests for water polo players with the purpose to furnish a complete framework to coaches and fully exploit recent advances of scientific research to enhance performance assessment and monitoring of the athletes., Evidence Acquisition: PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Science Direct were searched for relevant studies published from January 2000 to January 2021. The study dealt with a specific water test and performed in a horizontal swimming position without ball were included., Evidence Synthesis: Twenty-three studies met the inclusion criteria. The results indicate the physiological assessment of water polo players might be divided into two areas concerning the swimming evaluation: swimming sprint tests and endurance swimming test. Furthermore, endurance swimming tests may be split into two subgroups: anaerobic-endurance swimming and aerobic-endurance swimming tests. Each of these areas evaluates a specific conditional capacity through swimming protocols based on the players' individual profile and water polo demands., Conclusions: In the last years, scientific research has studied the typical ability of each water polo rule and of every athletes' level that represents this sport. The results have oriented the researchers to choose different protocols to evaluate each swimming capacity that characterizes a particular phase of the water polo match.

Water exercise provides a workload in every direction of motion for training in a reduced impact environment. The selection of an appropriate physical activity and an individual exercise prescription are essential to obtain training effects. The aim of the present study was to determine individualised relative exercise intensities at four speeds of motion for water cycling and water running. Running was tested both in buoyancy and with the feet in contact with the bottom of the pool. To this purpose, gas exchanges, heart rate, and blood lactate were measured in each test session. Fourteen active, healthy females (23.2 ± 1.6 years) underwent a dry land maximal incremental protocol to exhaustion on a treadmill and hydrobike (HB); they engaged in water running with ground contact (RC) and water running suspended (RS) tests in a swimming pool at 30, 40, 50, and 60 cycles per minute (cpm), submerged at the individual xiphoid level. The four motion speeds of the three water exercise modalities ranged from 50% to 95% of the maximal heart rate and the maximal oxygen uptake, representing a moderate-to-vigorous training stimulus. RS elicited the lowest oxygen consumption, whereas HB demanded the significantly highest oxygen consumption and presented the highest blood lactate accumulation, with vigorous intensity being reached at 50 cpm and near maximal intensity at 60 cpm. It appears that water cycling could be more suitable for athletic training, whereas water running could be more appropriate for health and fitness purposes.

The aim of the study was to analyse the fitness level of young horse riders before and after 12 weeks of training restrictions instituted due to the COVID-19 emergency. Anthropometrical measure assessment and an eight-items fitness test battery were administered to 61 puberal and adolescent female amateur horse riders. Subjects were evaluated within 3 weeks before (pre-tests) the period of training restrictions and on the first day of normal training after it (post-tests). Post-test results showed significant increases in body weight (Z: −1.732; p value: 0.001; ES: −0.157) and BMI (F: 9.918; p value: 0.003; ES: 0.146), whilst the performance in hand grip and abdominal strength, hip mobility, and 10 × 5 m Shuttle and Cooper 12 min tests’ outcomes significantly decreased (F: 29.779; p value: 0.001 F: 29.779; p value: 0.001 F: 29.779; p value: 0.001 F: 29.779; p value: 0.001 F: 29.779; p value: 0.001, respectively). Correlation analysis revealed that riders’ experience was significantly correlated with hand grip (p < 0.01), leg strength (p < 0.01), hip mobility (p < 0.05), and 5 × 10 m Shuttle (p < 0.01) and the Cooper 12 min (p < 0.01) test results. It could be suggested that equestrian activities could produce a higher fitness level in puberal and adolescent riders, whilst home-based, unsupervised, and unattentively planned training during the twelve weeks of training restrictions might be insufficient to maintain it.

Background: In order to verify if partner dance is an appropriate physical activity (PA) for elderly, to promote and maintain healthy fitness level, physiological and exertional responses during ballroom and smooth dance in elderly were examined., Methods: Twenty healthy amateur dancers (10 men and 10 women, age 72.0±5.9 years, BMI 25.5±4.2 kg/m 2 ) with multiyear dancing experience performed 3 different kinds of ball (choosing between Mazurka, Viennese Waltz and Polka or Slow Waltz, Tango and Foxtrot), each lasting 3 minutes, with a 3-minute recovery between consecutive balls. Cardiorespiratory data were continuously recorded with a portable metabolimeter (K5, Cosmed Srl., Rome, Italy) in order to assess metabolic equivalent task (METs) of each ball. The Borg Category-Ratio anchored at the number 10 (CR10 Scale) was used to assess perceived effort (RPE) at the end of each ball., Results: There were no gender differences in METs and RPE. Also, no differences in RPE were observed between balls. The mean METs for ballroom dance were: Tango 4.3±1.1, Slow Waltz 4.5±1.1 and Foxtrot 4.8±1.4 METs, respectively; the mean METs for smooth dance were: Mazurka 5.3±0.9, Viennese Waltz 5.8±0.8 and Polka 5.9±1 METs, respectively. Polka elicited significantly higher METs values than Tango (P<0.0007) and Slow Waltz (P<0.0017); Viennese Waltz elicited significantly higher METs values than Tango (P<0.0016), too., Conclusions: In general, ballroom and smooth dance demanded moderate to vigorous PA intensity levels (according to the specific classification for elderly). Therefore, all studied dance styles met the suggested intensity of the current guidelines for elderly and thus may serve as a legitimate form of PA for elderly.

Background: Italy is one of the main destinations for winter tourism. Specifically, the country can currently count on more than 5.700 km of ski runs, served by more than 1.700 lift facilities Objective. The purpose of this study has been the analysis of injuries in ski resorts in a continuous period spanning over several seasons (17 years). In addition, the possible effect of safety law enforcements, introduced in the selected period, were considered., Material and Methods: A ski injuries database, prepared as a duty of policemen involved in rescue activity and consisting of 246616 records of injuries for the period from 7th December 2002 to 31st December 2019, has been analysed for qualitative and quantitative variables., Results: The majority of injuries (58%) occurred on slopes with medium difficulties. After the introduction of national ski safety law (Law 363/2003), a strong diffusion of protective helmet has been noticed. The adoption of the helmet has significantly reduced cranio-facial injuries both in children and in adults. Moreover, no death events were recorded in the database after the introduction of Law 363/2003. The diffusion of ski accident insurance programs is slowly increasing, even if in the year 2019 approximately 38% of skiers still didn't have an insurance program., Discussion and Conclusions: It is possible to speculate that the introduction of a national ski safety law had a positive effect on injuries reduction. At the same time, collected data underlined several critical points that seem, at least in part, addressed by the law revision performed in 2021.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the 2019-2020 season, swimming competitions and training have been limited leading to a setback in performances. The study analyzed if, during the subsequent season, swimmers' have been able to regain the lost performance. Swimming time trends were analyzed comparing Tokyo with Rio Olympics and with mathematically predicted results. The gap between the gold medalist and the last finalist, and the differences between men and women have also been considered. Swimming competition results of females and males, in 100 m and 200 m Freestyle and Backstroke, were collected from the Olympics' official website. Results showed that at Tokyo Olympics almost all swimmers' times improved as compared to Rio's. Analysis of performance trends highlighted that performance progression does not proceed in a linear fashion and that is best predicted by more recent results. Women's progression was higher than men's and the gap between the first and last finalist constantly decreased, except for the Tokyo Olympics. In conclusion, the unprecedented Tokyo Olympic Games and qualification year seems not to have disrupted all Olympic swimmers' performance, suggesting that stakeholders support and athlete's coping ability might safeguard the subsistence of performance.

The aim of the present study was to quantify the impact of training restrictions, due to COVID-19 sanitary emergency, on physical and emotional strain of horse-riding Eventing competitions before and after eight weeks of lockdown. Performance was assessed by the penalty points attained, anxiety by the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2, strain by the Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) method. Moreover, Heart Rate was continuously monitored for fifty-four female national level Eventing horse-riders. Lockdown decreased performance outcome of horse-riders in Eventing competitions up to six weeks, with the Dressage test being the most affected discipline. Performance in Dressage was strongly related to both anxiety and session-RPE. After lockdown, Show-Jumping and Cross-Country courses were shorter allowing RPE to remain stable, session-RPE to significantly decline and cardiovascular strain not to exceed pre-lockdown values. In conclusion, emotional stress in Dressage and workload in Cross-Country should be carefully managed by equestrian Eventing stakeholders when planning training and competitions after a period of lockdown. Moreover, sRPE appears to offer a practical method of monitoring riders load during training and competition and could also be of use for home-based training during any future sport activities restrictions.

Objective: The present study aimed to assess if changes in speed and stroke parameters, as measured by an inertial sensor during a maximal effort swimming test, could provide an effective detection of anaerobic capacity in elite swimmers., Approach: Fourteen elite swimmers performed a 75 m maximal swimming test. Changes in speed and stroke parameters, estimated by a body-worn inertial sensor, were analysed to provide insight into stroke mechanics during swimming. Their relationships with the output of the Wingate Anaerobic Test were analysed. Best times in competition were also considered to assess swimmer's performance., Main Results: Mean power measured using the Wingate cycle ergometer test highly correlated with mean speed attained by the swimmers during the proposed 75 m swimming test (R range: .700-.809, p   <  .05). Mean power in the Wingate Anaerobic Test and mean speed in the 75 m swimming test highly correlated with best times attained by the swimmers (R range: .736-.855, p   <  .01; R range: .659-.952, p   <  .05, for Wingate and 75 m swimming test, respectively). Moreover, stroke variables were investigated: in this regard, a significant decrease in stroke rate and swimming speed and a significant increase in stroke length were observed between the first and the third lap (p   <  .01)., Significance: The present in-water free swimming test provided insight into specific physiological/mechanical aspects of elite swimmers. The correlation of the swimming and the Wingate tests with swimmer's performance in competition confirms that they both reflect the skills and anaerobic qualities a swimmer uses in a race. The wearable inertial sensor could represent a feasible solution to evaluate stroke parameters, allowing a timely follow-up of variations in swimming biomechanics along the course of the test and the identification of differences in biomechanical strategy between swimmers. This analysis is of great interest for swimmers and coaches to characterise swimmer's technique weakness and strength, and to plan individual race pacing strategy.

Aim: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the session rate of perceived exertion (RPE) method as a tool to quantify internal training load during interval training in master athletes. In addition, we investigated whether it is appropriate to take into account rest periods when calculating the session-RPE., Methods: Eight male master endurance athletes (age: 45.3±7.3 years; stature: 1.74±0.06 m; body mass: 64.9±9.1 kg) were monitored during an interval training session consisting of 5 x 1000 m performed at 95% of vVO2max with 5 min rest between bouts. Edwards' summated heart rate zone method was used as a reference measure and the session RPE rating was obtained using the CR10 Borg's scale modified by Foster., Results: High (r: 0.82; R2: 0.67) and significant (P=0.013) correlation was observed between the Edwards' heart rate (HR) and the session-RPE method when rest periods are taken into account; meanwhile a higher significant correlation (r: 0.86; R2: 0.74; P=0.003) was found between Edwards' HR and the session-RPE methods when rest periods were eliminated for the session-RPE computation., Conclusion: Despite the rest period exclusion from the computation of session RPE seems more appropriate, the statistical analysis indicates that there is no significant difference between the two correlation coefficients. These findings suggest that the session-RPE can be a useful tool to monitor internal training load during interval training and that the inclusion/exclusion of rest periods in its computation needs further investigation.

Aim: The purposes of the present study were: 1) to evaluate heart rate and technical-tactical differences, if any, during ''6-a-side'' drills, played on 2 pitch dimensions (30x40 m and 50x40 m) and duration (3 min and 8 min); 2) to assess the variability of data between repeated experimental sessions; 3) to evaluate training intensities from heart rate at lactate threshold., Methods: Laboratory measurements of maximal oxygen consumptions, maximum heart rates and lactate thresholds were performed on 9 soccer players who played at Regional level. For test and retest field sessions, the exercise intensities were calculated from heart rate monitoring and match analysis (number of actions, consecutive passes, players involved in a single action) was performed., Results: No significant differences were found in heart rate frequency distributions between test and retest sessions. Statistically significant differences in frequency distributions of heart rate were found only between the 3 min and 8 min drills played on the 40x50 m pitch. Regarding exercise intensity, significant differences (P<0.01) were found for pitch dimension, with higher intensities shown during the 30x40 m pitch trials. When technical data were related to time units, no differences were found among experimental settings., Conclusions: These data indicate that coaches could better modulate the training intensity by varying the pitch dimension, with the smaller individual playing area (30x40 m) having a large impact on the metabolic demands of exercise.

Background: In the present study, vastus lateralis de-oxygenation was monitored contemporarily with VO2 changes along a severe constant intensity running exercise, after the 3rd min up to volitional exhaustion. Blood lactate accumulation was also measured before, during and after running., Methods: Eleven male amateur soccer players volunteered for the study. Subjects mean age, height, and body weight were 22.9+/-2 yrs, 177.5+/-6.2 cm, 71.7+/-4 kg, respectively. Measurements were carried out during running on a treadmill. Ventilatory and gas exchange parameters were measured at the mouth on a breath-by-breath basis. For blood lactate concentration accumulation measurement, capillary blood samples were taken from the fingertip. The oxygenation of the vastus lateralis muscle were measured by a continuous wave NIRS portable instrument. By means of two pretests the onset of [La]b accumulation and its associated velocity (vOBLA), and the peak of oxygen uptake and its associated velocity (vVO2,peak) were assessed. The test consisted of running on the treadmill up to volitional exhaustion at a constant velocity corresponding to vOBLA plus 50% of the difference between vVO2,peak and vOBLA (v50%Delta)., Results: The principal finding of this study was that vastus lateralis de-oxygenation changes measured during running correlate with a) oxygen uptake changes between the 3rd min of exercise and the time corresponding to the subject's volitional exhaustion; b) blood lactate concentration increments measured at the 3rd and the 6th min of exercise and at the time corresponding to the subject's volitional exhaustion., Conclusions: In conclusion, the results of the present study support our hypothesis that the vastus lateralis de-oxygenation contributes consistently to the VO2 slow component development in running.

All studies on the oxygen uptake (VO2) slow component have been carried out for the sporting disciplines of cycling or running, but never for swimming. Considering that front crawl swimming is a sport discipline that is fundamentally different from both running and cycling, the aim of this study was to verify whether this slow component also appears in swimming. Six elite pentathletes were tested in a swimming flume while front crawl swimming to exhaustion. Swimming velocity for the slow component test was determined as v50% delta = CV + [vVO2peak - CV)/2], where CV is the critical velocity and vVO2peak the lowest velocity at which peak VO2 occurred. To set the subject's CV, expressed as the slope of a straight line that describes the correlation between swimming distance and time, the record times over three swimming distances were recorded in a 50 m swimming pool. The vVO2peak was measured by means of an incremental test in the swimming flume. Gas exchange was measured by means of a telemetric metabolimeter (K4 RQ, Cosmed, Italy) that was connected to a snorkel. The slow component was found in all subjects, with a mean (SD) value of 239 (194) mlO2.min-1. Therefore, although front crawl swimming is fundamentally different from both running and cycling, it appears that it also incurs a VO2 slow component. The origin of this phenomenon, however, is even more uncertain than for the other sport disciplines.

Background: The purpose of this study was to verify, by track field tests, whether sub-elite runners (n=15) could (i) reach their VO2max while running at v50%delta, i.e. midway between the speed associated with lactate threshold (vLAT) and that associated with maximal aerobic power (vVO2max), and (ii) if an intermittent exercise provokes a maximal and/or supra maximal oxygen consumption longer than a continuous one., Methods: Within three days, subjects underwent a multistage incremental test during which their vVO2max and vLAT were determined; they then performed two additional testing sessions, where continuous and intermittent running exercises at v50%delta were performed up to exhaustion. Subject's gas exchange and heart rate were continuously recorded by means of a telemetric apparatus. Blood samples were taken from fingertip and analysed for blood lactate concentration., Results: In the continuous and the intermittent tests peak VO2 exceeded VO2max values, as determined during the incremental test. However in the intermittent exercise, peak VO2, time to exhaustion and time at VO2max reached significantly higher values, while blood lactate accumulation showed significantly lower values than in the continuous one., Conclusions: The v50%delta is sufficient to stimulate VO2max in both intermittent and continuous running. The intermittent exercise results better than the continuous one in increasing maximal aerobic power, allowing longer time at VO2max and obtaining higher peak VO2 with lower lactate accumulation.