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Decades of reckless deforestation have caused serious soil erosion and land desertification issues in the Loess Plateau (LP). "Grain for Green" Program (GFGP), one of the world's largest ecological restoration projects, is crucial to improve the ecological environment. Previous studies have demonstrated that GFGP lowers soil erosion in the LP. However, there are trade-offs and synergies between ecological services. Does strengthening soil conservation prevent enhancing other ecosystem services? Consequently, can the GFGP improve many ecological services simultaneously? This study compares changes in NDVI prior to and following the implementation of the GFGP in LP to the enhancement of ecosystem services. During the research period, the LP's overall vegetation cover rose significantly, particularly in the GFGP's major counties. Significant improvements were made to ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, soil conservation, and habitat quality. The GFGP enhanced the synergistic linkages between ecological services. The implementation of the GFGP decreased water yield, suggesting trade-offs with other ecosystem services. Additionally, we investigate regional trade-offs/synergies between ecosystem services and their influencing factors, which were influenced by topographic and climatic variables. To maximize the benefits of ecological restoration efforts, we need a deeper understanding of the relationships between ecosystem services and the mechanisms that drive them. Thus, policymakers can scientifically exert control over local influences on ecosystem services, either by boosting the provision of specific services or by limiting specific influences in order to maintain ecosystem stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing socioecological systems (SESs) sustainability requires establishing a reasonable cross-regional social and ecological interaction. In this study, we examine how cross-regional ecological and social interactions affect synergistic effects. Using InVEST and correlation analysis with data from 2010 through 2020, we assessed ESs (i.e., water retention-WR, nutrient retention-NR, and carbon storage-CS) in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region. A small watershed, a river network, and settlement development capacity are used to delineate ecological and social interactions units. Based on a Bayesian network model that considers population, economy, and spatial agglomeration patterns between social units, we assessed the potential for achieving a synergistic improvement of ESs and the driving forces behind them. The results show that ESs in the BTH region compete, only a small percentage (6.38%) shows synergetic improvement across CS, WR, and NR. It is beneficial for upstream watersheds to retain water and nutrients, but to maintain carbon storage they may sacrifice water retention. Upstream areas with less development and higher vegetation density have better ecosystem integrity of up- and down-stream watersheds, and can be enhanced with minimal human impact, as social interactions and settlement spatial structures influence ES synergies. There is a higher risk for ecological issues in downstream areas, but greater awareness and collaboration can lead to better ES synergies. • Upstream and downstream watersheds have opposing synergistic improvement potential. • Urban–rural spatial interactions and settlement structure impact service synergy. • Synergistic improvements in ecosystem management require balanced approaches. • Water and nutrition retention services have improved in the BTH region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Livestock is an important source of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) in China. Understanding the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission trends and reduction strategies in livestock is crucial for promoting low-carbon transformation of the livestock sector (LS) and achieving the goal of "carbon peak and carbon neutralization". First, based on the life cycle assessment and IPCC coefficient methods, we calculated the GHGE of the LS in 31 provinces of China from 2000 to 2020 and identified the temporal and spatial evolution of GHG emission intensity. The LMDI method was then used to analyze the influence of efficiency, structure, economy, and population size on GHGE. Finally, the STIRPAT model was used to simulate the future evolution trend of the LS emissions under the SSPs scenario. The results revealed that the GHGE in the life cycle of livestock production decreased from 535.47 Mt carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2 e) in 2000 to 532.18 Mt CO 2 e in 2020, and the main source was CH 4 emissions from enteric fermentation of livestock. Economic and efficiency factors markedly influenced the changes in GHGE from the LS in China. Further, economic factors contributed >40% to the increase in GHGE in most provinces. Under the SSP1, SSP2, and SSP4 scenarios, livestock production can achieve the carbon peak target in 2030. Under the baseline scenario (SSP2), the GHGE of China's LS in 2030 and 2060 are expected to be 491.48 Mt CO 2 e and 352.11 Mt CO 2 e, respectively. The focus of mitigation measures for livestock production in the future is to optimize the production structure of the LS, promote the low-carbon transformation of the energy structure of livestock feeding, and establish an efficient and intensive management model. In addition, we focus on emission reduction in key areas, such as Northeast and Northwest China, while optimizing diet and reducing food waste from the consumer side. • GHGE during the livestock production from 2000 to 2020 fluctuated between 500.77 and 670.98 Mt CO 2 e. • GHGE per unit output value of LS were decreasing annually. • Economic and efficiency factors were the main reasons for the change in GHGE from livestock production in China. • The GHGE from the LS are expected first to increase and then decrease between 2021 and 2060. • The LS has the highest emission reduction potential under SSP1, SSP2, and SSP4 scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urbanisation and population agglomeration have significantly increased China's CO 2 emissions. Migration has altered the quantity and spatial distribution of CO 2 emissions, yet these changes have not been quantified. This study used a counterfactual analysis to determine the impact of migration on CO 2 emissions. Specifically, we used a multi-scale geographically weighted regression to estimate the marginal effects of net immigration on CO 2 emissions, an environmentally extended multi-regional input-output model to determine how migration impacts the CO 2 emissions of inflow and outflow regions as well as the regional transfer of CO 2 emissions, and structural path analysis to identify key sectors and their emission paths. The results indicate that population emigration from less-developed regions was primarily responsible for reducing CO 2 emissions. Upon migration to urban agglomeration areas, individuals chose cleaner fuels and used public services more frequently, which resulted in a significant reduction in the intensity of local emissions. Furthermore, migration led to a narrowing of spatial disparities in indirect emission reductions. Provinces in eastern and north-eastern China were less affected by indirect CO 2 emissions caused by immigration. Additionally, the eastern and central regions exhibited 'regional agglomeration' and 'self-circulation' in the emission paths of key sectors. • Migratory effects on CO 2 emissions were determined using a counterfactual analysis. • China's CO 2 emissions are projected to increase 9.61% under reverse migration. • Migratory emission reductions may result from emigration from impoverished regions. • Service and energy-intensive sectors are most impacted by migration flows. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land cover is being continuously transformed at an accelerating pace because of urbanization and economic development, which is, in turn, impacting ecosystem services and human well-being. Consequently, there is a need to enhance sustainable land use management to achieve high levels of land eco-efficiency across different regions in China. Accomplishing this entails adjustments not only in terms of the spatial layout of land but also in land use management. The relationship between land use management and land eco-efficiency was explored taking Hebei, a province of China, as a case study. With the help of Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA) and other statistical analysis, we analyzed land use conversions and land eco-efficiency in Hebei, China. In this study, we first explored the relationship between land use conversion, ratio of cultivated land, and crop production using scatter plots. Further, we analyzed the land eco-efficiency and ecological performance of cities in Hebei based on SFA. The findings of the study revealed that land use output is the key factor linking land use management and land eco-efficiency. Spatial differences of land eco-efficiency are clearly apparent in Hebei, and the results of the study showed a corresponding decrease in land eco-efficiency with a reduction in the distance to the city center. In conclusion, a step-by-step regulatory process for improving land eco-efficiency within China's land use management scheme is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Land surface temperature marginally affects grain production (0.0037). • Land surface temperature and grain production efficiency are weakly connected. • Annual average grain production efficiency had a decreasing trend from 2000 to 2010. • There is a large gap in grain production efficiencies among counties. Historical records and multiple researches have indicated that there is a close connection between carbon dioxide and surface temperature. Climate change and its impacts on agriculture, especially grain production, is one of the major challenges for food security and sustainable development. From the perspective of natural flow, climate change directly affects plant growth via water circulation, such as droughts and floods. Although the covariation of surface temperature and CO 2 concentration will to some extent benefit crop photosynthesis, grain production may fluctuate according to the grain market, which is also affected by its erratic provisioning. We then determine how climate change affects grain production and efficiency using an input distance function and technical inefficiency model. First, we discover a significant relationship between surface temperature and grain production, although this impact is marginal; the coefficient is 0.0037 in the estimated model. Second, we find that surface temperature influences grain production not only through its photosynthesis but also its production efficiency in major grain production areas. And grain production efficiency is in a decreasing trend from 2000 to 2010, the average efficiency in 2010 is 0.75 on the whole. Third, there is a large gap in grain production efficiency among counties in Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Heilongjiang and Henan provinces, according to a distribution map of that efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We calculated carbon sequestration/emissions in agroecosystems in Hebei, China. • We measured agricultural production efficiency considering an undesirable output. • The annual average low-carbon agriculture production efficiency increased by 3.03%. • There were disparities of efficiency among cities owing to increased carbon emission. • Climate change had complex effects on low-carbon agricultural production. With the increase of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the atmosphere, global greenhouse effects have intensified, thereby contributing to climate change. Agriculture contributes to climate change by increasing GHG emissions, and climate change in turn affects agricultural production. In this paper, we calculated carbon emissions and sequestration of agriculture in the 142 counties of Hebei Province, China, and analyzed their spatiotemporal distributions during 2000–2010. Considering net carbon emissions as an undesirable output, we then measured low-carbon agricultural production efficiency using a stochastic directional distance function. We further explored the impacts of climate change on low-carbon agricultural production. We found that carbon emissions in agriculture increased by 15.85% (650 million tons) during 2000–2010, while carbon sequestration in agroecosystems increased by 33.82% (13.8 million tons). The annual average low-carbon agricultural production efficiency increased by 3.03%. There were distinct disparities of efficiency among cities, with the highest efficiency in Chengde and Shijiazhuang. The efficiency in southeastern areas was lower than that in the northwest, owing to the increased carbon emissions. Temperature and precipitation had a positive effect on efficiency in Hebei, whereas extreme weather events caused lower efficiency. The results provide valuable references for developing sustainable, climate-resilient and adaptive agriculture under changing climatic conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper compared two soil moisture downscaling methods using three scaling factors. Level 3 soil moisture product of advanced microwave scanning radiometer for EOS (AMSR-E) is downscaled from 25 to 1 km. The downscaled results are compared with the soil moisture observations from polarimetric scanning radiometer (PSR) microwave radiometer and field sampling. The results show that (1) the scaling factor of normalized soil thermal inertia (NSTIs) and vegetation temperature condition index (VTCI) are better than soil evaporative efficiency in reflecting soil moisture; (2) for method 1, NSTIS is the best in the downscaling of soil moisture. For method 2, VTCI is the best; (3) no significant differences of the correlation coefficients (R2) and the biases were found between the two methods for the same scaling factors. However, method 2 shows a better potential than method 1 in the time-series applications of the downscaling of soil moisture; (4) compared with the relationship between the area-averaged soil moisture of AMSR-E and that of PSR, R2 of the 6 sets of the downscaled soil moisture almost do not decrease, which suggests the validity of the downscaling of soil moisture with the two downscaling methods using the three scaling factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Our study proposes to capture the heterogeneities and estimate the energy efficiency, technology gap and carbon emission performance of enterprises in Guangdong province. We employ group-frontier and meta-frontier directional distance function to analyze the technical efficiency based on the groups categorized in terms of both geographical boundaries and industrial classification system. The estimation indicates that enterprises in Mountainous region have a lower mean efficiency and a wider range of efficiency than the others, they have the largest potential to contribute to CO 2 reduction, which can be further reduced by 35%. A small part of the enterprises in Industries sector have the lowest efficiency, although the sector has the smallest technology gap ratio. Comparatively, Information Technology sector has the highest efficiency (mean value is 0.95), efficiency of Energy sector is the lowest (mean value is 0.65). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Extreme climate events have become more frequent and severe as a result of climate change. In semi-arid pastoral regions, extreme drought is harmful to livestock production and to vulnerable human communities and livelihoods. In this study, we considered extreme drought in semi-arid regions and investigated climate adaptations taken by the local vulnerable households and their effects on livestock production. We first analyzed the characteristics of spatio-temporal variation of extreme drought in Hulun Buir, Inner Mongolia, China, during 1980–2015 by using the FAO Penman–Monteith model and then applied stochastic frontier analysis to evaluate the technical efficiency of livestock production of 126 pasturing households. We further explored the effects of climate adaptations to extreme drought on the technical efficiency of livestock production. The results showed that the average frequency of extreme drought in Hulun Buir was 4.6 month/year and displayed a decreasing trend varying from southwest to northeast during 1980–2015. Based on the survey data, the average technical efficiency of livestock production of the local households was 0.530 in 2015, which could be greatly improved. The adaptations of the households significantly positively increased the technical efficiency of livestock production. Purchasing more forage and selling more livestock were the two most frequently adopted and effective adaptive measures for the response of vulnerable households in Hulun Buir to extreme drought risks. Further policy options were provided to improve livestock production as well as rangeland protection and restoration for coping with extreme drought in the context of climate change in semi-arid pastoral regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract There is a great deal of evidence that climate change affects socioeconomic systems. The social cost of carbon (SCC) is calculated by scientists to monetarize the incremental unit of carbon emission and is used to assess climate policies. This study begins with a review of current research on the SCC, followed by a discussion of the choice of models for the SCC. We give a list of advantages of disadvantages of each model and finally use a meta-analysis to evaluate the SCC from published research. The main findings were as follows. (i) Integrated assessment models (IAMs) are often employed to assess the SCC, research on IAMs was started booming in the 1990s and slightly decreased after 2012. (ii) The estimated SCC ranges from −50 to 8752$/tC (−13.36–2386.91$/tCO 2), with a mean value of 200.57$/tC (54.70$/tCO 2) and it equals to 112.86$/tC (30.78$/tCO 2) with a PRTP at 3% in peer-reviewed studies. (iii) The estimated SCC is higher in newer publication year and in peer-reviewed studies, the same trend happens with a higher climatic sensitivity and employing DICE/RICE and PAGE. (iv) The pure rate of time preference (PRTP) is tightly associated with the estimated SCC, and a higher PRTP has a lower estimated SCC. (v) The outliers often appear without realistic scenario setting and in studies have not peer-reviewed. Highlights • A higher PRTP has a lower estimated SCC. • Estimates of the social cost of carbon equals to 112.86$/tC with a PRTP at 3% in peer-reviewed studies. • The outliers often appear without realistic scenario setting and in studies have not peer-reviewed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Rapid urbanization has significant effects on China's CO 2 emissions and contributes to climate change. Using a cross–city panel of 64 cities from four large urban agglomerations in China over 2006–2013, we estimate urban household residential energy-related CO 2 emissions. We then apply fixed effects two-stage least squares (2SLS) to explore the relationship between urbanization and residential CO 2 emissions, using an augmented Stochastic Impacts by Regression on Population, Affluence and Technology (STIRPAT) model. The results show that the average amount of residential CO 2 emissions in these four agglomerations has a strong increasing trend over 2006–2013, rising from 2.85 to 5.67 million tons (Mt). Those with municipality and capital city status emit more residential CO 2 emissions. A rising urban population share significantly influences residential CO 2 emissions, as does population scale, GDP per capita, urban compactness and the comprehensive level of urbanization. Urban population share has positive effects on residential CO 2 emissions even pasting the demarcation point (75%) in China's urban agglomerations. GDP growth has negative effects on residential CO 2 emissions. Therefore, urban agglomerations' development and expansion should be designed to be well-organized. Policy makers should pay more attention to the urbanization patterns and design a guide for green development and sustainable lifestyle in the process of China's eco-urbanization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing human activities worldwide have significantly altered the natural ecosystems and consequently, the services they provide. This is no exception in Nigeria, where land-use/land-cover has undergone a series of dramatic changes over the years mainly due to the ever-growing large population. However, estimating the impact of such changes on a wide range of ecosystem services is seldom attempted. Thus, on the basis of GlobeLand30 land-cover maps for 2000 and 2010 and using the value transfer methodology, we evaluated changes in the value of ecosystem services in response to land-use/land-cover dynamics in Nigeria. The results showed that over the 10-year period, cultivated land sprawl over the forests and savannahs was predominant, and occurred mainly in the northern region of the country. During this period, we calculated an increase in the total ecosystem services value (ESV) in Nigeria from 665.93 billion (2007 US$) in 2000 to 667.44 billion (2007 US$) in 2010, 97.38% of which was contributed by cultivated land. The value of provisioning services increased while regulation, support, recreation and culture services decreased, amongst which, water regulation (−11.01%), gas regulation (−7.13%), cultural (−4.84%) and climate regulation (−4.3%) ecosystem functions are estimated as the most impacted. The increase in the total ESV in Nigeria associated with the huge increase in ecosystem services due to cultivated land expansion may make land-use changes (i.e. the ever-increasing agricultural expansion in Nigeria) appear economically profitable. However, continuous loss of services such as climate and water regulation that are largely provided by the natural ecosystems can result in huge economic losses that may exceed the apparent gains from cultivated land development. Therefore, we advocate that the conservation of the natural ecosystem should be a priority in future land-use management in Nigeria, a country highly vulnerable to climate change and incessantly impacted by natural disasters such as flooding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid development of urbanization has had a dramatic impact on the ecological environment in China. In this paper, we first measure the urban eco-efficiency of 281 prefecture-level cities in China during 2006–2013 using the super-efficiency data envelopment analysis (SEDEA) model. We then propose a new comprehensive index system to assess urbanization. Finally, we quantitatively explore the relationship between urbanization and urban eco-efficiency based on a spatial econometric analysis. The results showed that China's average urban eco-efficiency and comprehensive level of urbanization of 281 prefecture-level cities had shown increase during 2006–2013. However, distinct spatial disparities exist among different cities. China's urbanization has significant characteristics of spatial agglomeration and spatial convergence during 2006–2013, with a high-to-low spatial distribution from eastern China to western China. Spatial effects play an important role in the changes of urban eco-efficiency in China through spatial spillover effects and regional replication and competition. Evidence from spatial econometric analysis reveals that an N-shaped relationship exists between urbanization and urban eco-efficiency, indicating that with the improvement of urbanization, urban eco-efficiency first increases, then declines and then increases again. The improvement of the level of technology and the formulation of effective environmental policies will promote the increase in urban eco-efficiency. The results provide significant references for urban ecological management and sustainable urban transformation in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After the People's Republic of China (PRC) established in 1949, central planners have made much efforts to greening the capital city, Beijing. However, with the increasing population and consumption in the city, the increasing environmental risks continually flow into the local social-economic-ecological system (SEES) through ecological intercorrelation from neighborhoods, so that the thresholds of risks challenge the urban resilience of Beijing and the surrounding area. Thereby, we analyze the 139 selected indicators to deeply understand the systematic risks across temporal scale during 1978–2015 in Beijing. Results show the development pathway of Beijing experienced three stages from “entrance”, “soar” to “coursing”. In the current new stage, the ecological impacts and resource use per capita are main constrains to future development in Beijing. This implies to a framework of urban growth for a demonstration pilot path of eco-urbanization in five aspects: 1) strategic clarification of the growth space; 2) design the urban growth path based on ecosystem planning with functional landscape architecture; 3) higher standards of industrial establishments with advanced environmental assessment and monitoring; 4) construction of environmental infrastructures with smart resource recycling; and 5) based on strict implementation of institutions and regulations to maximize the function of market allocation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our research explores the relationship between precipitation extreme and urban ecosystem health by using emergy analysis based on urban ecosystem health assessment and Difference-in-Difference approach. In the case study area of Beijing and Tianjin, their urban ecosystem are getting healthier with the average growth rate of the key index, urban ecosystem health, are 0.23 and 0.12 respectively, simultaneously the overall index of Beijing is a little higher than that of Tianjin. Meanwhile, urban ecosystem seemingly has nothing to do with precipitation extreme, and the health of its urban sub-ecosystem performs significantly to the precipitation extreme except the sub-ecosystems, resilience, public services and human health. Vigor, one of the urban sub-ecosystems, its ecosystem health negatively associated with precipitation extreme. And urban sub-ecosystem health of vigor will reduce 14.42 if a precipitation extreme happens. The precipitation extreme has a positive effect on organization and emergies. And urban sub-ecosystem health of organization and emergies will increase 44.11, 12.02 respectively if a precipitation extreme happens. In addition, it is apparently nonsignificant to the sub-ecosystems, resilience, public services and human health. Moreover, the extreme precipitation consumes more emergies for the city, it seems beneficial for emergy flow for that precipitation extreme negatively affects emergy/dollar ratio, environmental loading rate and positively affects total emergy. But the extreme precipitation also negatively influences emergy yield ratio. Thus, urban ecosystem health associates with precipitation extreme in a complex way, both positively and negatively. Government measures for recovering urban ecosystem health should emphasize the sub-ecosystem vigor of the city, like constructing more public facilities. And policy makers may pay more attention on environmental loading rate, like advocating improving energy use efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Industrial production is key to economic development, yet it significantly influences the water environment. Recent literature has mainly focused on economic development and water pollution separately, lacking an integrated assessment. This study aims to clarify the links between industrial production and water pollution and its driving factors in the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YREB) in 2012–2017 based on environmentally-extended input-output analysis and structural decomposition analysis, thus identifying key regions and sectors for pollution reduction. The results revealed that manufacture of foods and tobacco (MFT) and chemical industry (CI) in Anhui, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Hunan, and processing of petroleum, coking, processing of nuclear fuel (PPCN) in Chongqing were the primary sources of total chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammoniacal nitrogen (NH 3 –N), total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) discharges. The structural decomposition analysis (SDA) results demonstrated that the discharge intensity effect caused a decrease of 7.91 Mt, 0.22 Mt, 0.25 Mt, and 0.03 Mt of the indirect COD, NH 3 –N, TN, and TP discharge, while the scale effect led to an increase of 1.95 Mt, 0.26 Mt, 0.24 Mt and 0.03 Mt of them in 2012–2017. According to the analysis, water pollution reduction and industrial structure modernization are needed in the YREB. The technological upgrading of highly polluting industries and the structural adjustment between traditional highly polluting industries and high-tech industries were the focus for achieving green development of the YREB, especially in Anhui, Hubei, Guizhou and Yunnan. The establishment of green industrial parks, the development of environmental regulations, and the implementation of supply-side reform policies can benefit water pollution reduction and sustainable development. [Display omitted] • The EEIO model was applied to identify key regions and sectors for water pollution. • MFT, MT, MTCS, PPCN and CI were major sectors for water pollutant discharges. • Jiangsu and Jiangxi were major contributors for water pollutant discharges. • Discharge intensity effect decrease water pollution, scale effect did the opposite. • Green development need focus on industries with high indirect pollutant discharge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we analyze the changes of indicators of ecosystem services and functions, in order to understand the main cause of grassland degradation due to climatic variation or land use changes in the middle-south Inner Mongolia. The soil nutrient and the water supply of supporting service got recovery during 1988–2008. The loss of net primary production declined, and the quality of the retained unconverted grassland (RUG) even increasingly degraded from 2000 to 2008. Analytical results show that environmental degradation on the land-use-changed-area is lower than that on the RUG from 2000 to 2008. It illustrates that climatic variation has more negative impacts on grassland ecosystem service, and which is significantly higher than the so-called “overgrazing” induced grassland degradation. Moreover, it cannot be excluded that those species died out on the RUG due to natural selection or competitive evolution in an evolutionary process under the deteriorative weather condition rather than overgrazing. The positive impacts of human activities such as conservation programs and wildlife protection laws also benefit to regional grassland ecosystem obviously in the study area, so that can delay the environmental degradation even if each planet has its life cycle. It indicates that an integrated regional planning involving the considerations of climatic conditions, geographical characteristics, socioeconomic factors, and ecological functions and biodiversity can benefit to regional grassland conservation based on monitoring and management via scientific methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the relationship between landscape diversity and crop production using big data techniques. In the case study area of Hebei Province, China, there is a positive ecological effect of landscape diversity on crop production (coefficient of H (Shannon's index) and H 2 on crop production are 7.9665 and −2.2388 respectively), and a negative effect via operating cultivated land change (coefficient of H and H 2 on cultivated land change are −5.4253 and 1.5520 respectively). This negative effect is measured with big data techniques and is explained by variables such as the ratio of cultivated land and other basic local conditions. The net effect of landscape diversity on crop production is negative, all else the same, reflecting the strength of the impact through cultivated land change. Thus, it is important to adhere to a certain level of landscape diversity if crop production is to be sustained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to analyze the trade-offs between cultivated land conversions and land productivity using data fusion. First, 1-km area percentage data model, which integrates advantages of grid data and vector data, is applied to detect cultivated land conversion in each 1 km × 1 km grid cell in Shandong Province. Then land productivity in the study area is assessed with the Estimation System of Land Production (ESLP) model based on agro-ecological zones, which integrates multi-source data, including land use data, climatic data, radiation parameters, soil properties. Estimation result shows that the average land productivity of the whole study area is 7509 kg hm −2 during 1985–2010, while land productivity of built-up land and water areas with low vegetation is zero. Furthermore, results of comparative analysis on cultivated land conversion and land productivity shows that land productivity in Shandong Province is unevenly distributed, which is higher in the west part of the study area, and lower in the regions where cultivated land conversion occurs. And the overall trend of land productivity is in a decreasing trend during 2003–2010. The measures of management of this trade-off should be focused on preventing cultivated land conversion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interaction between livestock production and net primary productivity (NPP) in Qinghai Province, China, is estimated using simultaneous equations. The total value of livestock production and NPP positively influence each other, so livestock farming in Qinghai Province is not necessarily injurious to vegetation in this region. There is a weak positive effect on NPP of a county-level region having a nature reserve. There are positive effects of temperature, sunshine hours, relative humidity and rainfall on NPP, and therefore indirectly affect livestock production. Higher grazing density negatively affects NPP, so appropriate grazing density and establishing natural reserves are practical actions to sustain livestock farming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a result of economics and policy, land-use/land-cover change (LUCC) in China has undergone a series of complicated changes over the past three decades. However, the effects of LUCCs on ecosystem service values (ESVs) have never been previously assessed at the national scale. Thus, on the basis of three Chinese LUCC maps from 1988, 2000, and 2008, we examined changes in land-use/land-cover and consequent ESVs using a value transfer method. We found that ESVs decreased by 0.45% and 0.10% during the periods 1988–2000 and 2000–2008, respectively, and that ESV changes in China during the period 2000–2008 were relatively moderate compared to the rest of the world over a similar period. The ESVs for provision, regulation, support, and culture decreased by 0.19%, 0.48%, 0.43%, and 0.45%, respectively, during the period 1988–2000, while they decreased by 0.11%, 0.09%, 0.14%, and 0.04%, respectively, during the period 2000–2008. We also developed an elasticity indicator to assess responses in ESV change relative to LUCCs. Results of this analysis show that 1% of land conversion in China resulted in 0.15% and 0.10% average changes in ESVs during the two periods, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission targets to regional solution at different scales with structural effects. Because local ecosystem service has different functions to influence regional environment, it is unclear that land use structural effects on lowering emission intensity and mitigating air pollution, and it is debatable that the efficiency of mitigation of GHG emission can be improved by increasing what kind of ecological infrastructure at regional scale. We propose a systematic methodology on identification of trade-offs among structural impacts of land use change on emission intensity at regional scale through both qualitatively and quantitatively statistical analysis to clarify impacts of different land use on the mitigation of emission intensity. In particular to a region with some distinct constraints of natural resources, regional planning has to rely on scientific solutions for bridging the gap of emission mitigation target among multi-levels of administrations and at same time enhancing the optimal allocation of natural resource. In this case study, we qualitatively analyze the principle component among impact factors in a regional socio-economic-ecological system of Zhangye City (where is located at the middle reach of the Heihe River Basin) during 1980s–2010s, and quantitatively analyze the relationship between land use structure and emission intensity with controlling the effects of air contaminations. The analytical results prove that forest land has statistically significant impacts on the mitigation of emission intensity, more importantly, there are no statistical significant evidences showing that cultivated land and wetland have the same functions. It indicates that to identify key issues from those mixed impacts of land use structure at regional scale determines to promote an optimal path of natural resource allocation for reducing the GHG emission and air contaminations. It implies that mitigation of GHG sorely needs to take land use structure changes into consideration of the systematic research for scientifically improving regional planning and sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land degradation directly affects global and regional economic, social development, and food security, which has become a hot and challenging issue in the global ecological field. A successful response to land degradation requires understanding its causes, impacts, and extent. It is also essential to recognize the effects of climate, soil, water, land cover, and socioeconomic factors on land degradation. Therefore, assessing land degradation risk can help prevent and reverse land degradation trends, especially for the main grain production area. The Environmental Sensitivity Area Index (ESAI) was used to identify land degradation sensitive areas in the North China Plain and combined with a random forest model to determine the main drivers affecting land degradation and predict future land degradation sensitive areas. The results show decreasing land degradation risk in the North China Plain. In 2015, the sensitivity of land degradation in the North China Plain had improved. The proportion of land area with high sensitivity to land degradation reduced to 0.02%. Combining the spatial and temporal distribution of ESAI and the prediction results of the random forest model, we know that socio-economic factors have the most significant impact on land degradation sensitivity. Although the risk of land degradation is decreasing, it is still necessary to pay attention to the possible future land degradation risk to stabilize food production. Assessing land degradation risk in North China Plain provides important decision information for rational and sustainable land management and has more vital practical significance. • The land degradation sensitivity in North China Plain improved. • The ESAI and random forest model were combined to predict the future land degradation risk trends in the North China Plain. • The growth of population and GDP are important influencing the potential risk of land degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2014, China adjusted its “city categorization standard.” The newly defined megalopolises and metropolises are under unprecedented pressure from various eco-environmental problems, making them suitable representatives for exploring the state of urban ecosystem health. In this study, we establish a two-layer indicator system to assess the urban ecosystem health and choose 33 indicators grouped into social, economic, transportation, facility, land, and management subsystems, with the aim of correlating human activities with the structure, vigor, resilience, and health of the urban ecosystem. We integrate subjective and objective methods to determine weights at different levels through the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), the analytic hierarchy process, and information entropy. In particular, we develop a spatial TOPSIS technique by introducing a Euclidean-distance-based weight to rank the health of the cities' ecosystem in terms of the spatial effects among these cities. The results reveal that megalopolises such as Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou have superior social and economic subsystems, whereas other megacities have advantages in transportation, facility, land, and management subsystems. From 2005 to 2010, the gaps among these cities in terms of urban ecosystem health significantly reduced regardless of the weight determination method. Not all indicators involved can help realize a better urban ecosystem. Nevertheless, they provide a reference point for making specific regulations to control human activity and improve eco-environmental management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land-use change is a major factor driving ecosystem service change. Measuring the ecosystem service variation in response to land-use change is an effective way to assess the environmental costs and benefits of different approaches to policy-based planning. In the present study, we examined the changes in value of the ecosystem services (VES) in the North China Plain (NCP), which is an agricultural region, producing over 35% of the total grain in China, and estimated the changes of VES resulting from land-use change. A model mainly based on net primary productivity (NPP) and soil erosion amount was developed to assess the VES. The results show that the total VES of the NCP increased by $ 21.61 billion in 2000 USD during 2000–2008. However, the land-use change led to a net loss of VES by 0.08 billion USD. The expansion of built-up areas contributed to 84.61% of the loss of VES caused by land-use change. The increase of NPP mainly accounted for the increase of VES since it significantly improved the ecosystem service functions of gas regulation, nutrient cycling, and organic material provision. Overall, compared to other factors, land-use change only accounted for 0.35% of VES change during 2000–2008 in NCP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine relationships between nationwide sparing use of water and farmer income of China in this article. As increasing implementation of water projects and irrigation system, the cost of water use has increased in many regions. However, as local policy-oriented urban expansion and ecological restoration have carried out during the past decade, water demand has increased. The spatial distributions of water use and farmer income are uneven and their relationships are ambiguous over time, especially it is uncertain that farmers can benefit from those so called water-saving programs when urban expansion grows faster in China. Based on consumption theory, empirical results of Blundell–Bond dynamic panel-data model with generalized method of moments (GMM) estimators indicate saving one percent of water has positive impacts at 0.085–0.35 percent on farmer income in the following statistical year. Population has negative impacts on farmer income. Particularly in Central China, one percent of increase in population will statistically significantly decrease 0.276 percent of contemporaneous farmer income. Particularly, in Eastern China with large population during years 2004 through 2012, the total amount of water use increases one percent, contemporaneous farmer income loses 0.04 percent. Thus, saving water can benefit future farmer income, and it indicates that urban expansion may induce the diversion of resources and agricultural production from rural to urban area. Policy implication of relationships between water allocation and farmer income distribution caused by water-saving programs needs to be further studied at regional scale, in particularly to the regions with large population and urban expansion in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China launched a series of ecological restoration policies to mitigate its severe environmental challenges in the late 1990s. From the beginning, the effects and influences of the ecological restoration policies have been hotly debated. In the present study, we assessed the effects of two vital ecological restoration policies (Grain-for-Green and Grain-for-Blue) on valued ecosystem services in Shandong province. A new method based on the net primary productivity and soil erosion was developed to assess the ecosystem service value. In the areas implementing the Grain-for-Green and Grain-for-Blue policies, the ecosystem service value increased by 24.01% and 43.10% during 2000–2008, respectively. However, comparing to the average increase of ecosystem service value (46.00%) in the whole of Shandong province in the same period, Grain-for-Green and Grain-for-Blue did not significantly improve overall ecosystem services. The ecological restoration policy led to significant tradeoffs in ecosystem services. Grain-for-Green improved the ecosystem service function of nutrient cycling, organic material provision, and regulation of gases but decreased that of water conservation. Grain-for-Blue increased the water conservation function but led to a reduction in the function of soil conservation and nutrient cycling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land degradation is a complex process which involves both the natural ecosystem and the socioeconomic system, among which climate and land use changes are the two predominant driving factors. To comprehensively and quantitatively analyze the land degradation process, this paper employed the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) as a proxy to assess land degradation and further applied the binary panel logit regression model to analyze the impacts of the driving factors on land degradation in the North China Plain. The results revealed that an increase in rainfall and temperature would significantly and positively contribute to the land improvement, and conversion from cultivated land to grassland and forest land showed positive relationship with land improvement, while conversion to built-up area will lead to land degradation. Besides, human agricultural intensification represented by fertilizer utilization will help to improve the land quality. The economic development may exert positive impacts on land quality to alleviate land degradation, although the rural economic development and agricultural production will exert negative impacts on the land and lead to land degradation. Infrastructure construction would modify the land surface and further resulted in land degradation. The findings of the research will provide scientific information for sustainable land management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In ecologically fragile areas with arid climate, such as the Heihe River Basin in northwestern China, sustainable social and economic development depends largely on the availability and sustainable uses of water resource. However, there is more and more serious water resource shortage and decrease of water productivity in Heihe River Basin under the influence of climate change and human activities. This paper attempts to identify the severe water scarcity under climate change and presents possible solutions for sustainable development in Heihe River Basin. Three problems that intervened land use changes, water resource, the relevant policies and institutions in Heihe River basin were identified, including (1) water scarcity along with serious contradiction between water supply and demand, (2) irrational water consumption structure along with low efficiency, and (3) deficient systems and institutions of water resource management along with unreasonable water allocation scheme. In this sense, we focused on reviewing the state of knowledge, institutions, and successful practices to cope with water scarcity at a regional extent. Possible solutions for dealing with water scarcity are explored and presented from three perspectives: (1) scientific researches needed by scientists, (2) management and institution formulation needed by governments, and (3) water resource optimal allocation by the manager at all administrative levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we introduced three-nested Constant Elasticity of Substitution (CES) production function into a static Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) Model. Through four levels of factor productivity, we constructed three nested production function of land use productivity in the conceptual modeling frameworks. The first level of factor productivity is generated by the basic value-added land. On the second level, factor productivity in each sector is generated by human activities that presents human intervention to the first level of factor productivity. On the third level of factor productivity, water allocation reshapes the non-linear structure of transaction among first and second levels. From the perspective of resource utilization, we examined the economic efficiency of water allocation. The scenario-based empirical analysis results show that the three-nested CES production function within CGE model is well-behaved to present the economy system of the case study area. Firstly, water scarcity harmed economic production. Government investment on water projects in Gansu thereby had impacts on economic outcomes. Secondly, huge governmental financing on water projects bring depreciation of present value of social welfare. Moreover, water use for environment adaptation pressures on water supply. The theoretical water price can be sharply increased due to the increasing costs of factor inputs. Thirdly, water use efficiency can be improved by water projects, typically can be benefited from the expansion of water-saving irrigation areas even in those expanding dry area in Gansu. Therefore, increasing governmental financing on water projects can depreciate present value of social welfare but benefit economic efficiency for future generation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is well known that there are huge land use and land cover changes (LUCC) all over the world in recent decades, and plenty of ensuing effect appeared on the energy and water balance. This study aims to analyze the impacts of land use and land cover changes on the energy and water balance in the Heihe River Basin of China during 2000–2010, and four key study sites with representative hydrological stations and dramatic LUCC in the past decades were selected to illustrate the responses of the energy and water balance to LUCC. First, LUCC of the Heihe River Basin from 2000 to 2010 was analyzed based on the interpretation of remote sensing images. Then a series of indicators of the energy and water balances were simulated with the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model and corresponding land use and land cover data. Thereafter the impacts of LUCC on the surface energy and water balance were detected and analyzed. The spatial–temporal variance of the impacts of LUCC on energy and water balance in a typical arid inland river basin was specifically presented in following analysis. The results show that different land use/cover conversions result in various energy balances. During this process, the most significant impacts on surface energy balance occurred when grassland was converted to barren or sparsely vegetated land. As for water balance, the impact is measured with variations of precipitation, runoff and evapotranspiration induced by LUCC, which were also remarkable, although seasonal trends of the effects are similar among various land use/cover conversions during 2000–2010. At last, policy suggestions, e.g., shifting the water balance by LUCC to improve the water management, are given to conclude this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community is the disaggregated unit to reflect the transformation of eco-urbanization in China. Eco-urbanization at communities is the ecological landscape and environment-friendly practices, and is directly reflected in residents' satisfaction on the transformation of these ecological elements. In this study, we assess resident's perception of eco-urbanization at community and explore the influencing factors by a field survey in 64 community block groups with 668 questionnaires. Methodologically, we have made the assessment using residents' satisfaction on green space, sanitation, landscape, noise pollution treatment, and optic pollution control. Then regression analysis has been made with the influencing factors from the dimensions of individual characteristics, management, and facilities. In general, residents' satisfaction on sanitation is at the highest level and noise pollution treatment is at the lowest level. The property management and the safety sense greatly influence the residents' perceptions, whereas facilities appear to have less influence. The environmental environment friendly behavior also affects residents' satisfaction on eco-community. The results have also revealed resident's perception of eco-urbanization at community shows great difference in different regions and in different community types. Accordingly, it is necessary to strengthen the comprehensive governance on eco-community, enhance the all-around management and promote human-oriented community in the future. • We assess residents' perception of eco-community and explore the influencing factors by a field survey nationwide. • Residents' satisfaction on green space, sanitation, landscape, noise and optic pollution control is investigated. • Influencing factors are selected from the dimensions of individual characteristics, management, and facilities. • The property management and the safety sense greatly influence the residents' perceptions. • Resident's perception of eco-community shows great difference in different regions and in different community types. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the rationale, challenges and opportunities of promoting urbanization in Western China. Topics covered include the launch of the National Western Development Strategies in 1999, trends in urbanization in China since 1978, and the benefits of urbanization like the promotion of social, economic, environmental and natural capital. Also discussed are the challenges to be considered in promoting urbanization in the western region, including the fragile ecological system.

Food safety and its related influencing factors in China are the hot research topics currently, and cultivated land conversion is one of the significant factors influencing food safety in China. Taking the North China Plain as the study area, this paper examines the changes of cultivated land area using satellite images, estimates land productivity from 1985 to 2005 using the model of Estimation System for Land Productivity (ESLP), and analyzes the impact of cultivated land conversion on the land production. Compared with the grain yield data from statistical yearbooks, the results indicate that ESLP model is an effective tool for estimating land productivity. Land productivity in the North China Plain showed a slight decreasing trend from 1985 to 2005, spatially, increased from the north to the south gradually, and the net changes varied in different areas. Cultivated land area recorded a marginal decrease of 8.0 × 10 ha, mainly converted to other land uses. Cultivated land conversion had more significant negative impacts on land production than land productivity did. Land production decreased by about 6.48 × 10 t caused by cultivated land conversion between 1985 and 2005, accounting for 91.9% of the total land production reduction. Although the land productivity increased in Anhui and Jiangsu provinces, it can not offset the overall adverse effects caused by cultivated land conversion. Therefore, there are significant meanings to control the cultivated land conversion and improve the land productivity for ensuring the land production in the North China Plain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lake eutrophication leading to water pollution is a major global concern. In recent years, rapid economic growth and the increase in the intensity of resource exploitation in China have caused the influx of nitrogen and phosphorus into lakes. This in turn has led to more severe lake eutrophication, more frequent outbreaks of algal blooms, and the degradation of lake ecosystems. An effective plan balancing economic growth with the reduction of nitrogen and phosphorus emissions is greatly needed. The design and implementation of such a plan requires the collection and analysis of pertinent data. In this paper, we use the environmental computable general equilibrium (ECGE) model to identify the most effective way to balance economic growth with the reduction of nitrogen and phosphorus emissions. For the multiregional analysis, we use social accounting matrices (SAMs) and a provincial trade matrix based on the assumptions of the gravity model. We consider the Poyang Lake Watershed as a case study to illustrate the utility of the model. Based on present conditions in the Poyang Lake Watershed, restricting nitrogen and phosphorus emissions from sectors with the highest emissions is more effective for balancing economic growth and the reduction of nitrogen and phosphorus emissions than restricting nitrogen and phosphorus emissions from all sectors. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The effect of roads on forests is ambiguous. Many studies conclude that building and upgrading roads increases pressure on forests but some find that new and better roads may reduce the rate of deforestation. In this paper we use satellite remote sensing images of forest cover in Jiangxi Province, China, to test whether the existence and the size of roads (ranging from expressways to tertiary roads) in 1995 affected the level of forest cover in 2000 or the rate of change between 1995 and 2000. To account for road access for each of our 1km2 (“pixel”) units of forest cover we measure whether or not and what type of roads penetrate the “watershed” in which the pixel lies. These watersheds allow more plausible measures of accessibility than do traditional “crowfly” distance measures that ignore topography. To account for possible confounding we also use 12 additional covariates: geographic and climatic variables (e.g., elevation, slope, rainfall, temperature, soil properties); demographic and economic variables (e.g., local population and GDP per square kilometer); and distance variables (e.g., distance to the nearest provincial capital). Although simple univariate OLS regressions show that forest levels are lower and deforestation rates higher either when there is a road, or when there is a higher quality road, these results are not robust. Controlling for all of the covariates and also using recently developed covariate matching techniques to estimate treatment effects, we find that roads in China’s Jiangxi Province can most safely be described as having no impact on the level of forests and no impact on the rate of deforestation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After one decade of development, the methods to explore the temporal and spatial process of LUCC (Land Use and Land Cover Change) have been vastly improved; and in some sense a methodology framework used to study the temporal and spatial process is being rapidly developed. The methodology framework is based on the integration of the classical theories of Geography and the recent developed technologies of remote sensing and GIS, which is a new research field to meet the need for scientific information to promote the studies on global change adaptation and sustainable development. It addressed the following: the detection and description of the temporal and spatial process of LUCC, analysis of driving mechanism of LUCC, simulation of LUCC process and evaluation of ecological effect due to LUCC. The formation of methodology framework to study the temporal and spatial process of LUCC, to some extent, has been promoted to tackle the hard-nut topics in science through interdisciplinary efforts among geography, GIS and macro-ecology. The domestic and overseas research trends indicate that the development of detection and analytical technologies of remote sensing information and the methodological innovation of simulating the temporal and spatial process of LUCC, play an important role in promoting the development of methodology framework of the temporal and spatial process of LUCC. The synthetic application of the detection and analytical technologies of LUCC remote sensing information, the construction of multi-source and temporal-spatial data platform and the realization of massive data availability and integration are all kernel components of the methodology framework of the temporal and spatial process of LUCC. We can expect that the research methods system of the temporal and spatial process of LUCC will play a more important role in guiding the research activities of LUCC processes at regional and global levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the largest emerging economy globally, China is facing crop-livestock disconnection, which causes unnecessary synthetic fertiliser use, local food and feed unsatisfied demand, and manure nitrogen (N) surplus. We investigated how crop-livestock regional integration combined with inter-regional transportation of food, feed, and manure, can contribute to food self-sufficiency of easter China (whole and regional level) while avoiding manure N excess. We also investigated how this could increase the local soybean production without harming the self-sufficiency of other food commodities. We proposed an optimisation model of integrated crop-livestock production in eastern China, including the production of food, feed, and livestock manure N in each region and the demand for food (according to healthy diet recommendations), feed and manure N. We optimised the supplier cost-benefit balance considering food and feed production, domestic transportation, and foreign trade, taking food and feed demand satisfaction and manure N surplus avoidance as constraints. This optimisation exercise was performed under different scenarios: optimisation without soybean subsidies (scenario O), optimisation with increasing soybean subsidies (scenario OS+). The two scenarios were compared with the baseline scenario B (non-optimised without soybean subsidies) using balance indices (BI , the gap between production and demand divided by demand) of food, feed, and manure N and transportation indices. Results showed that, for the whole of eastern China, BI were positive for cereals (1.523), vegetables (2.789), meat (0.002), eggs (0.002), milk (0.102), and maize (0.244), and negative for manure N (−0.016) in scenario O. This indicated that most of the food and feed items except soybean were self-sufficient and manure N surplus was avoided after optimisation. Some regions lowered their self-sufficiency for some commodities. As soybean subsidies increased from 0 Yuan ‧ ton-‍1 to 6000 Yuan ‧ ton−1, the BI of soybeans increased by 66.37%. Our results suggested that crop and livestock can be integrated in China for an improved level of food self-sufficiency and manure N surplus avoidance. However, regional self-sufficiency could not be achieved in all regions for all items, and transportation is necessary. In particular, three strategies seem relevant for policy-making: (i) decreasing livestock quantity, for strengthening feed self-sufficiency and avoiding manure N surplus; (ii) increasing soybean production through subsidies; (iii) reducing regional-level self-sufficiency and increasing the transportation for meat and eggs, which would avoid manure N surplus in densely populated regions, while decreasing the maize transportation. [Display omitted] • Inconsistent configuration of crops and livestock may lead to a low level of food self-sufficiency and manure N surplus. • We proposed an optimisation model of an integrated crop-livestock system at the regional level. • We compared the balance indices of food, feed, manure N, and transportation indices in different scenarios. • Food self-sufficiency was strengthened and the manure N surplus was avoided by optimisation exercises in eastern China. • Three principles for policy strategies were suggested based on our results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reducing vulnerability and strengthening resilience are vital to achieve the sustainable development goals. Identification of socio-economic vulnerability has been a key step for problem identification and solution framing. Using the official data of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) countries from year 2000 to year 2015, the Data Envelopment Analysis model was applied to evaluate the socio-economic vulnerability of the countries. Subsequently the convergence characteristics of socio-economic vulnerability between the countries were examined using Theil index method. The results showed that the average socio-economic vulnerability of the BRI countries had a decreasing trend, from 0.319 to 0.141, with fluctuations between 2000 and 2015. The South Asia and East Asia-Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) were high vulnerability zones as they experienced frequent natural hazards with high population densities. The Theil indices indicated that overall disparities in the BRI countries' vulnerability were high with values around 0.575-0.757and did not show obvious convergence trend, even though the disparities in vulnerability scores of the South Asia and East Asia-ASEAN zones were relatively lower. In addition, intra-group disparities constituted about 71.34% of the total disparities, which were the primary cause of the overall disparity in the BRI region, indicating that different levels of socio-economic vulnerability between countries in the same zone was a concern. Proper management and decision-making are proposed, especially in the South Asia and East Asia-ASEAN zones, to reduce socio-economic vulnerability in order to better resist natural hazards. • Changes and convergence of vulnerability of BRI countries are explored. • DEA and Theil index are used to vulnerability assessment and convergence analysis. • Vulnerability of the BRI countries had a decreasing trend during 2000–2015. • Overall disparities in vulnerability of the BRI countries kept high. • South Asia and East Asia-ASEAN were key zones that need to reduce vulnerability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As one of the most intensively eroded regions worldwide, soil erosion assessment is currently gaining further momentum in the Loess Plateau (LP), China. However, there exist very few review studies that assess soil erosion in relation to land use and land cover (LULC), climate, and ecosystem services (ESs) at multiple temporal and spatial scales in the LP. Thus, this review provides a comprehensive review of the interactions among soil erosion assessment, climate change, LULC change, and ESs at different scales. We focused on the academic literature published in the English language and analyzed the coverage of soil erosion across 109 publications. Our results highlighted three aspects: (1) studies dealing with the effects of LULC change on soil erosion are abundant. A recent surge in research interest is to explore a threshold of vegetation cover to support a sustainable eco-hydrological environment in the LP. However, the impacts of multiple stressors on soil erosion have received limited attention. (2) The short-term soil erosion assessment dominated the published studies. Cross-spatial-scale and long-term erosion assessments have received little attention. (3) 43% of reviewed papers used a field measurement method to assess soil erosion with the validation of measurement methods. 41% of reviewed papers used empirical models to assess soil erosion, but the modeling validation remains an unsolved problem. Then, three recommendations are listed as follows: (1) the combined impacts of LULC and climate change on soil erosion need to be further examined. (2) Long-term and cross-spatial-scale soil erosion assessments need to be established. (3) Soil erosion modeling accuracy on a large scale needs to be developed. • The assessment of multiple stressors on soil erosion has received limited attention. • Poor coverage of multi-spatial scale and long-term soil erosion assessment. • Large scale soil erosion modeling validation remains an unsolved problem. • A recent surge in academic interest is to explore thresholds of vegetation cover in the Loess Plateau. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As global warming worsens, climatic conditions in many regions are undergoing profound change, which could influence certain industries, such as agriculture and transportation, and affect the livability of cities. In this study, cities statistics and meteorological station data of the past decade in China were used to analyze the effect of climate change on cities livability. The livability of 288 Chinese cities during 2006–2016 was assessed using an analytic hierarchy process method. Results showed the mean cities livability index in China has improved about 12% throughout the past decade. Moreover, the Moran's I statistic and local indicators of spatial association revealed that the distribution of cities livability reflects a trend of gradual spatial agglomeration. In addition, geostatistical analysis was used to evaluate the impact of extreme weather events on cities livability. It was established that heatwaves and extreme precipitation events have significant impact on the livability of cities in southern China, whereas freezing weather drives the change of urban livability in northern areas. Combinations of different extreme weather conditions will have greater impact on urban livability. Based on mobile phone user data, the relationship between livability change and climate change in Chinese cities was elucidated to provide reference for urban environmental management. Unlabelled Image • Assessed the livability index of 288 Chinese cities over the past decade • Analyze the spatial distribution characteristics of the livability index of Chinese cities • Identified the impact of extreme climate events on the change of urban livability [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans have increasingly intervened in the nature to advance socioeconomic development at the expense of ecosystem services. Tradeoffs between ecosystem services and socioeconomic development are inevitable and should be considered in sustainable ecosystem management. This is no exception in Zhangye where intensive agricultural activities have significantly affected its ecological conditions. Thus, this study evaluated the tradeoffs between agricultural production and key ecosystem services along with their spatial distributions at the watershed level in Zhangye based on multisource observation data. The key ecosystem services, including net primary productivity (NPP), water yield, and soil conservation, were evaluated for the years 2000, 2010, and 2015 using remote sensing data and the InVEST model. The Morishima elasticity of substitution (MES) between these ecosystem services and agricultural production were then estimated by applying a quadratic directional output distance function, and mapped to determine the tradeoffs. The results showed that the average NPP and annual water yield respectively increased by 22% and 24%, while annual soil conservation decreased by 22% during 2000–2015. The average MES values for agricultural production with NPP, water yield, and soil conservation were 0.14, −0.69, and −0.56, respectively. This indicated the existence of a synergetic relationship between agricultural production and NPP as well as tradeoff relationships between agricultural production and water yield/soil conservation. Differences in the spatial patterns of the relationships between agricultural production and these ecosystem services were observed. Significant tradeoff relationships were observed for agricultural production with water yield and soil conservation in the upper reach of Zhangye. It indicated that increasing agricultural production would be at the cost of decreased water yield and soil conservation, especially in the upper reach area. The quantification and spatial pattern determinations of tradeoffs between ecosystem services and agricultural production is useful for the development of regional ecological conservation policy and sustainable ecosystem management. Unlabelled Image • Spatial dynamics of key ecosystem services in Zhangye were analyzed from 2000 to 2015. • A directional output distance function was applied to quantify tradeoffs. • Agricultural production and water yield/soil conservation exhibited tradeoffs. • Agricultural production and NPP showed weak synergy. • Tradeoff hotspots were identified in the upper reach of Zhangye. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study reveals that ecological intercorrelation in urban-rural area is a key role in changes of unobserved environmental effects of urban pollution, energy use inefficiency, and cultivated land loss. In a deductive model, we find that inequivalent economic growth in urban-rural area results in the variability of eco-efficiency of industrial production in urban area, which increases the risks of environmental effect to adjacent suburban and rural area, and directly affects changes of unobserved environmental effect spatial-temporally. Through ecological intercorrelation , both observed and unobserved environmental effects in this dynamic mechanism are formed, consequently intensify the regional inequality of environmental pollution, and frustrate the future coordinative development of regional economy. By employing the data of case study area of Gaoyou in China, estimations show that observed eco-efficiency is getting better but unobserved eco-efficiency is getting worse until this place becomes an eco-city. This study has proved that ecological intercorrelation in some extent sustains unobserved environmental effects to affect regional environmental degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The ESAP model was used to calculate land and agriculture productivity across China. • The agricultural productivity of municipal areas across China was updated for the period between 2010 and 2014. • Patterns in agricultural productivity spatiotemporal differentiation across China were obvious. • Data showed a strong positive spatial correlation between the agricultural productivity of municipal administrative areas. Understanding spatiotemporal patterns in Chinese agriculture is extremely important for national sustainable development. We apply the Estimation System of Agricultural Productivity (ESAP) model in this study to calculate this variable across China between 2004 and 2014 and further analyze spatiotemporal patterns at the municipal level using Moran's I and Local Indicators of Spatial Association (LISA) indices. The results of this study reveal that input factors have been dynamically embedded within this system and can therefore be utilized to avoid overestimates of agricultural productivity via the ESAP model, while the dependence of productivity on climatic factors also determines inter-annual variability and spatial patterns. The results of this analysis show that average agricultural productivity has tended to decrease spatially from south-to-north and from east-to-west across China, while generally increasing temporally between 2004 and 2014. The data presented in this study reveal a strong positive spatial correlation between values for agricultural productivity in municipal administrative areas, to the extent that identified LISA agglomeration types can mostly be categorized as either "high-high" (HH) or "low-low" (LL). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]