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The proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC) strategy results in the down-regulation of unwanted protein(s) for disease treatment. In the PROTAC process, a heterobifunctional degrader forms a ternary complex with a target protein of interest (POI) and an E3 ligase, which results in ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of the POI. While ternary complex formation is a key attribute of PROTAC degraders, modification of the PROTAC molecule to optimize ternary complex formation and protein degradation can be a labor-intensive and tedious process. In this study, we take advantage of DNA-encoded library (DEL) technology to efficiently synthesize a vast number of possible PROTAC molecules and describe a parallel screening approach that utilizes DNA barcodes as reporters of ternary complex formation and cooperative binding. We use a designed PROTAC DEL against BRD4 and CRBN to describe a dual protein affinity selection method and the direct discovery of novel, potent BRD4 PROTACs that importantly demonstrate clear SAR. Such an approach evaluates all the potential PROTACs simultaneously, avoids the interference of PROTAC solubility and permeability, and uses POI and E3 ligase proteins in an efficient manner.

DNA-encoded library (DEL) technology is a powerful tool for small molecule identification in drug discovery, yet the reported DEL selection strategies were applied primarily on protein targets in either purified form or in cellular context. To expand the application of this technology, we employed DEL selection on an RNA target HIV-1 TAR (trans-acting responsive region), but found that the majority of signals were resulted from false positive DNA–RNA binding. We thus developed an optimized selection strategy utilizing RNA patches and competitive elution to minimize unwanted DNA binding, followed by k-mer analysis and motif search to differentiate false positive signal. This optimized strategy resulted in a very clean background in a DEL selection against Escherichia coli FMN Riboswitch, and the enriched compounds were determined with double digit nanomolar binding affinity, as well as similar potency in functional FMN competition assay. These results demonstrated the feasibility of small molecule identification against RNA targets using DEL selection. The developed experimental and computational strategy provided a promising opportunity for RNA ligand screening and expanded the application of DEL selection to a much wider context in drug discovery.

We have developed a graph-based Variational Autoencoder with Gaussian Mixture hidden space (GraphGMVAE), a deep learning approach for controllable magnitude of scaffold hopping in generative chemistry. It can effectively and accurately generate molecules from a given reference compound, with excellent scaffold novelty against known molecules in the literature or patents (97.9% are novel scaffolds). Moreover, a pipeline for prioritizing the generated compounds was also proposed to narrow down our validation focus. In this work, GraphGMVAE was validated by rapidly hopping the scaffold from FDA-approved upadacitinib, which is an inhibitor of human Janus kinase 1 (JAK1), to generate more potent molecules with novel chemical scaffolds. Seven compounds were synthesized and tested to be active in biochemical assays. The most potent molecule has 5.0 nM activity against JAK1 kinase, which shows that the GraphGMVAE model can design molecules like how a human expert does but with high efficiency and accuracy.

1,2-Benzisothiazol-3(2H)-ones and 1,3,4-oxadiazoles individually have recently attracted considerable interest in drug discovery, including as antibacterial and antifungal agents. In this study, a series of functionalized 1,2-benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one - 1,3,4-oxadiazole hybrid derivatives were synthesized and subsequently screened against Dengue and West Nile virus proteases. Ten out of twenty-four compounds showed greater than 50% inhibition against DENV2 and WNV proteases ([I] = 10 μM). The IC50 values of compound 7n against DENV2 and WNV NS2B/NS3 were found to be 3.75 ± 0.06 and 4.22 ± 0.07 μM, respectively. The kinetics data support a competitive mode of inhibition by compound 7n. Molecular modeling studies were performed to delineate the putative binding mode of this series of compounds. This study reveals that the hybrid series arising from the linking of the two scaffolds provides a suitable platform for conducting a hit-to-lead optimization campaign via iterative structure-activity relationship studies, in vitro screening and X-ray crystallography.

We have identified four synthetic compounds (DFD-VI-15, BD-I-186, DFD-V-49, and DFD-V-66) from an amino acid-derived 1,2-benzisothiazolinone (BZT) scaffold that have reasonable MIC 50 values against a panel of fungal pathogens. These compounds have no structural similarity to existing antifungal drugs. Three of the four compounds have fungicidal activity against Candida spp., Cryptococcus neoformans , and several dermatophytes, while one is fungicidal to Aspergillus fumigatus . The kill rates of our compounds are equal to those in clinical usage. The BZT compounds remain active against azole-, polyene-, and micafungin-resistant strains of Candida spp. A genetics-based approach, along with phenotype analysis, was used to begin mode of action (MOA) studies of one of these compounds, DFD-VI-15. The genetics-based screen utilized a homozygous deletion collection of approximately 4,700 Saccharomyces cerevisiae mutants. We identified mutants that are both hypersensitive and resistant. Using FunSpec, the hypersensitive mutants and a resistant ace2 mutant clustered within a category of genes related directly or indirectly to mitochondrial functions. In Candida albicans , the functions of the Ace2p transcription factor include the regulation of glycolysis. Our model is that DFD-VI-15 targets a respiratory pathway that limits energy production. Supporting this hypothesis are phenotypic data indicating that DFD-VI-15 causes increased cell-reactive oxidants (ROS) and a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential. Also, the same compound has activity when cells are grown in a medium containing glycerol (mitochondrial substrate) but is much less active when cells are grown anaerobically.

Two click chemistry-derived focused libraries based on the benz[d]isothiazol-3(2H)-one scaffold were synthesized and screened against Dengue virus and West Nile virus NS2B-NS3 proteases. Several compounds (4l, 7j–n) displayed noteworthy inhibitory activity toward Dengue virus NS2B-NS3 protease in the absence and presence of added detergent. These compounds could potentially serve as a launching pad for a hit-to-lead optimization campaign.

An optimization campaign focused on improving pharmacological activity and physicochemical properties of a recently-identified class of cyclosulfamide-based norovirus inhibitors has been carried out. Dimeric compound 4 was found to be a ∼10-fold more potent norovirus inhibitor (ED50 0.4 μM) compared to the original hit, however, isonipecotic acid ester derivatives 7e and 10a were shown to have superior therapeutic indices.

A series of broad-spectrum antifungal agents based on the 1,2-benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one scaffold is reported. Preliminary structure-activity relationship studies have established the importance of the presence of the heterocyclic ring, a methyl group, and a phenyl ring for optimal manifestation of antifungal activity.

A new class of compounds that exhibit anti-norovirus activity in a cell-based system and embody in their structure a cyclosulfamide scaffold has been identified. The structure of the initial hit (compound 2a, ED(50) 4 μM, TD(50) 50 μM) has been prospected by exploiting multiple points of diversity and generating appropriate structure-activity relationships.

A scaffold hopping strategy was employed to identify new chemotypes that inhibit noroviruses. The replacement of the cyclosulfamide scaffold by an array of heterocyclic scaffolds lead to the identification of additional series of compounds that possessed anti-norovirus activity in a cell-based replicon system.

The general strategy and rationale underlying the design of COPD therapeutics that possess protease inhibitory activity and are also capable of releasing a species that attenuates inflammation by inhibiting caspase-1, are described. The synthesis and in vitro biochemical evaluation of a dual function molecule that sequentially inhibits HNE and caspase-1 in a time-dependent manner is reported.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) constitutes a worldwide health problem. There is currently an urgent and unmet need for the development of small molecule therapeutics capable of blocking and/or reversing the progression of the disorder. Recent studies have greatly illuminated our understanding of the multiple pathogenic processes associated with COPD. Of paramount importance is the key role played by proteases, oxidative stress, apoptosis and inflammation. Insights gained from these studies have made possible the exploration of new therapeutic approaches.An overview of major developments in COPD research with emphasis on low-molecular mass neutrophil elastase inhibitors is described in this review.Great strides have been made toward our understanding of the biochemical and cellular events associated with COPD. However, our knowledge regarding the inter-relationships among the multiple pathogenic mechanisms and their mediators involved is still limited. The problem is further compounded by the unavailability of suitable validated biomarkers for assessing the efficacy of potential therapeutic interventions. The complexity of COPD suggests that effective therapeutic interventions may require the administration of more than one agent such as a human neutrophil elastase or MMP-12 inhibitor with an anti-inflammatory agent such as a PDE4 inhibitor or a dual function agent capable of disrupting the cycle of proteolysis, apoptosis, inflammation and oxidative stress.

The 1-Oxo-1, 2, 3, 4-tetrahydroisoquinoline and 1-Oxo-1, 2-dihydroisoquinoline scaffolds were utilized in the design and solution phase synthesis of focused libraries of compounds for screening against West Nile Virus (WNV) protease. Exploratory studies have lead to the identification of a WNV protease inhibitor (a 1-oxo-1, 2-dihydroisoquinoline-based derivative, 12j) which could potentially serve as a launching pad for a hit-to-lead optimization campaign. The identified hit was devoid of any inhibitory activity toward a panel of mammalian serine proteases.

A series of compounds based on the N-amino-4-imidazolidinone scaffold was synthesized and screened against human neutrophil elastase (HNE). These studies lead to the identification of a selective, low micromolar reversible competitive inhibitor of HNE.

A structurally-diverse series of carboxylate derivatives based on the 1, 2, 5-thiadiazolidin-one 1, 1 dioxide scaffold were synthesized and used to probe the S’ subsites of human neutrophil elastase (HNE) and neutrophil proteinase 3 (Pr 3). Several compounds are potent inhibitors of HNE but devoid of inhibitory activity toward Pr 3, suggesting that the S’ subsites of HNE exhibit significant plasticity and can, unlike Pr 3, tolerate various large hydrophobic groups. The results provide a promising framework for the design of highly selective inhibitors of the two enzymes.

The S’ subsites of human neutrophil proteinase 3 (Pr 3) were probed by constructing diverse libraries of compounds based on the 1, 2, 3, 5-thiatriazolidin-3-one 1, 1-dioxide using combinational and click chemistry methods. The multiple points of diversity embodied in the heterocyclic scaffold render it well-suited to the exploration of the S’ subsites of Pr 3. Molecular modeling studies suggest that further exploration of the S’ subsites of Pr 3 using the aforementioned heterocyclic scaffold may lead to the identification of highly selective, reversible competitive inhibitors of Pr 3.

The treatment of a 1,2,5-thiadiazolidine 1,1-dioxide-derived phenylthiomethyl ether with sulfuryl chloride yielded an unexpected dimeric product whose structure was determined using X-ray crystallography. A plausible mechanism for the formation of this product is proposed. J. Heterocyclic Chem. (2009).

We reported previously that insect acetylcholinesterases (AChEs) could be selectively and irreversibly inhibited by methanethiosulfonates presumably through conjugation to an insect-specific cysteine in these enzymes. However, no direct proof for the conjugation has been published to date, and doubts remain about whether such cysteine-targeting inhibitors have desirable kinetic properties for insecticide use. Here we report mass spectrometric proof of the conjugation and new chemicals that irreversibly inhibited African malaria mosquito AChE with bimolecular inhibition rate constants (k(inact)/K(I)) of 3,604-458,597 M(-1)sec(-1) but spared human AChE. In comparison, the insecticide paraoxon irreversibly inhibited mosquito and human AChEs with k(inact)/K(I) values of 1,915 and 1,507 M(-1)sec(-1), respectively, under the same assay conditions. These results further support our hypothesis that the insect-specific AChE cysteine is a unique and unexplored target to develop new insecticides with reduced insecticide resistance and low toxicity to mammals, fish, and birds for the control of mosquito-borne diseases.

The studies lead to the identification of two promising compounds (I) and (II) which can be used as a launching pad for the optimization of potency, cytotoxicity and drug-like characteristics.

There is currently an unmet need for the development of small-molecule therapeutics for norovirus infection. The piperazine scaffold, a privileged structure embodied in many pharmacological agents, was used to synthesize an array of structurally-diverse derivatives which were screened for anti-norovius activity in a cell-based replicon system. The studies described herein demonstrate for the first time that functionalized piperazine derivatives possess anti-norovirus activity. Furthermore, these studies have led to the identification of two promising compounds (6a and 9l) that can be used as a launching pad for the optimization of potency, cytotoxicity, and drug-like characteristics.

The treatment of a 1,2,5-thiadiazolidine 1,1-dioxide-derived phenylthiomethyl ether with sulfuryl chloride yielded an unexpected dimeric product whose structure was determined using X-ray crystallography. A plausible mechanism for the formation of this product is proposed. J. Heterocyclic Chem. (2009).

A series of mechanism-based inhibitors designed to interact with the S′ subsites of serine proteases was synthesized and their inhibitory activity toward the closely-related serine proteases human neutrophil elastase (HNE) and proteinase 3 (PR 3) was investigated. The compounds were found to be time-dependent inhibitors of HNE and were devoid of any inhibitory activity toward PR 3. The results suggest that highly selective inhibitors of serine proteases whose primary substrate specificity and active sites are similar can be identified by exploiting differences in their S′ subsites. The best inhibitor (compound 16 ) had a k inact / K I value of 4580 M −1 s −1 .

A new class of carbamylating agents based on the cyclosulfamide scaffold is reported. These compounds were found to be efficient time-dependent inhibitors of human neutrophil elastase (HNE). Exploitation of the three sites of diversity present in the cyclosulfamide scaffold yielded compounds which inhibited HNE but not proteinase 3 (PR 3) or bovine trypsin. The findings reported herein suggest that the introduction of appropriate recognition elements into the cyclosulfamide scaffold may lead to highly selective agents of potential value in the design of activity-based probes suitable for investigating proteases associated with the pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

The mechanism of action of a general class of mechanism-based inhibitors of serine proteases, including human neutrophil elastaseα (HNE), has been elucidated by determining the X-ray crystal structure of an enzyme-inhibitor complex. The captured intermediate indicates that processing of inhibitor (I) by the enzyme generates an N-sulfonyl imine functionality that is tethered to Ser195, in accordance with the postulated mechanism of action of this class of inhibitors. The identity of the HNE-N-sulfonyl imine species was further corroborated using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry.