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The global spread of the parasitic mite Varroa destructor has emphasized the significance of viruses as pathogens of honey bee (Apis mellifera) populations. In particular, the association of deformed wing virus (DWV) with V. destructor and its devastating effect on honey bee colonies has led to that virus now becoming one of the most well-studied insect viruses. However, there has been no opportunity to examine the effects of Varroa mites without the influence of DWV. In Papua New Guinea (PNG), the sister species, V. jacobsoni, has emerged through a host-shift to reproduce on the local A. mellifera population. After initial colony losses, beekeepers have maintained colonies without chemicals for more than a decade, suggesting that this bee population has an unknown mite tolerance mechanism. Using high throughput sequencing (HTS) and target PCR detection, we investigated whether the viral landscape of the PNG honey bee population is the underlying factor responsible for mite tolerance. We found A. mellifera and A. cerana from PNG and nearby Solomon Islands were predominantly infected by sacbrood virus (SBV), black queen cell virus (BQCV) and Lake Sinai viruses (LSV), with no evidence for any DWV strains. V. jacobsoni was infected by several viral homologs to recently discovered V. destructor viruses, but Varroa jacobsoni rhabdovirus-1 (ARV-1 homolog) was the only virus detected in both mites and honey bees. We conclude from these findings that A. mellifera in PNG may tolerate V. jacobsoni because the damage from parasitism is significantly reduced without DWV. This study also provides further evidence that DWV does not exist as a covert infection in all honey bee populations, and remaining free of this serious viral pathogen can have important implications for bee health outcomes in the face of Varroa.

The viral landscape of the honey bee (Apismellifera) has changed as a consequence of the global spread of the parasitic mite Varroa destructor and accompanying virulent strains of the iflavirus deformed wing virus (DWV), which the mite vectors. The presence of DWV in honey bee populations is known to influence the occurrence of other viruses, suggesting that the current known virome of A. mellifera may be undercharacterized. Here we tested this hypothesis by examining the honey bee virome in Australia, which is uniquely free of parasitic mites or DWV. Using a high-throughput sequencing (HTS) approach, we examined the RNA virome from nine pools of A. mellifera across Australia. In addition to previously reported honey bee viruses, several other insect viruses were detected, including strains related to aphid lethal paralysis virus (ALPV) and Rhopalosiphum padi virus (RhPV), which have recently been identified as infecting honey bees in the USA, as well as several other viruses recently found in Drosophila spp. A further 42 putative novel insect virus genomes spanning the order Picornavirales were assembled, which significantly increases the known viral diversity in A. mellifera. Among these novel genomes, we identified several that were similar (but different) to key A. mellifera viruses, such as DWV, that warrant further investigation. We propose that A. mellifera may be preferentially infected with viruses of the order Picornavirales and that a diverse population of these viruses may be representative of a Varroa-free landscape.

Host shifts are a key mechanism of parasite evolution and responsible for the emergence of many economically important pathogens. Varroa destructor has been a major factor in global honeybee (Apis mellifera) declines since shifting hosts from the Asian honeybee (Apis cerana) > 50 years ago. Until recently, only two haplotypes of V. destructor (Korea and Japan) had successfully host shifted to A. mellifera. In 2008, the sister species V. jacobsoni was found for the first time parasitizing A. mellifera in Papua New Guinea (PNG). This recent host shift presents a serious threat to world apiculture but also provides the opportunity to examine host shifting in this system. We used 12 microsatellites to compare genetic variation of V. jacobsoni on A. mellifera in PNG with mites on A. cerana in both PNG and surrounding regions. We identified two distinct lineages of V. jacobsoni reproducing on A. mellifera in PNG. Our analysis indicated independent host shift events have occurred through small numbers of mites shifting from local A. cerana populations. Additional lineages were found in the neighbouring Papua and Solomon Islands that had partially host shifted to A. mellifera, that is producing immature offspring on drone brood only. These mites were likely in transition to full colonization of A. mellifera. Significant population structure between mites on the different hosts suggested host shifted V. jacobsoni populations may not still reproduce on A. cerana, although limited gene flow may exist. Our studies provide further insight into parasite host shift evolution and help characterize this new Varroa mite threat to A. mellifera worldwide.

SummaryMites in the genus Tropilaelaps are native brood parasites of the non-domesticated giant Asian honey bees, Apis dorsata, A. breviligula and A. laboriosa. They spread onto the managed European honey bee (A. mellifera) some time after humans introduced that bee into Asia. Nowadays, A. mellifera is kept for beekeeping throughout Asia and Tropilaelaps mites are one of its most damaging pests. At present, these mites remain confined to Asia and bordering areas but are recognized as emerging threats to world apiculture. In spite of their important pest-status, Tropilaelaps mites remain poorly studied and much remains to be learned about them. The methods reviewed here are intended to assist future research efforts to better understand these parasites. The review begins with an introduction that clarifies why Tropilaelaps mites are worthy of immediate research. It is followed by an outline of the mites' taxonomy and descriptions of various methods (including their pros and cons) by which mites can be coll...

SummaryPollination by honey bees plays a key role in the functioning of ecosystems and optimisation of agricultural yields. Severe honey bee colony losses worldwide have raised concerns about the sustainability of these pollination services. In many cases, bee mortality appears to be the product of many interacting factors, but there is a growing consensus that the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor plays the role of the major predisposing liability. We argue that the fight against this mite should be a priority for future honey bee health research. We highlight the lack of efficient control methods currently available against the parasite and discuss the need for new approaches. Gaps in our knowledge of the biology and epidemiology of the mite are identified and a research road map towards sustainable control is drawn. Innovative and challenging approaches are suggested in order to stimulate research efforts and ensure that honey bees will be able to sustainably fulfil their role in the ecosystem.

A key determinant of the efficiency of a surveillance system for exotic mites is whether an incursion might be detected sufficiently quickly to allow successful management actions to occur. To assess this possibility we have developed a spatial modeling system and synthesized knowledge of honeybee and mite behavior to explore the potential spread of exotic mites and the likelihood of their detection in sentinel hives. We find that increasing the number of hives and the efficiency of the detection method are the most effective means of improving the time to detection.

Adult drone honey bees from 4 Australian breeding lines were reared under similar conditions and examined for semen and sperm production when 14, 21 and 35 days old, during spring, summer and autumn. Almost half (40.5%) of all drones examined did not release any semen when manually everted. For those that released semen, the average volume released per drone was 1.09 μL (range 0.72 (±0.04)-1.12 (±0.04) μL) and the average number of sperms in the semen per drone was 3.63 × 10 6 (range 1.88 (±0.14)- 4.11 (±0.17) × 10 6 ). The release of semen was dependent on breeding line and age (P < 0.05), but not on the rearing season. The volume of semen released per drone was dependent on season, age, and breeding line (P < 0.05), while the concentration of sperm in the semen was dependent on season and breeding line (P < 0.05). Hence our data indicate that genetics underpins the maturation of drone honey bees as well as the volume of semen they release and the concentration of sperm in that semen. Apis mellifera / drones / semen production / sperm

Two new taxa have been added to the existing molecular phylogenies of the genus Apis. The new phylogeny supports the accepted phylogenetic relationships of {dwarf honey bees [giant honey bees (cavity-nesting honey bees)]}. Based on Bayesian and maximum parsimony trees, our analysis supports recognition of Apis indica, the Plains Honey Bee of south India, as a separate species from A. cerana. Our analysis also supports recognition of the Giant Philippines Honey Bee, A. breviligula, as a separate species from A. dorsata.

The invasion of the Western honey bee, Apis mellifera, by Varroa destructor is attributed to two mitochondrial haplotypes (K and J) that shifted last century from their primary host the Eastern honey bee, A. cerana, in north-east Asia. Here, mitochondrial DNA sequences (cox1, cox3, atp6 and cytb: 2700 base pairs) were obtained from mites infesting both Eastern and Western honeybees (respectively 21 and 11 colonies) from Asia including regions where the shifts first occurred. A total of eighteen haplotypes were uncovered in Asia (11 on A. cerana and 7 on A. mellifera). Two new variants of the K haplotype and two of the J haplotype were found on Western honeybees in what appeared to be well-established infestations. New haplotypes may represent a potential threat to A. mellifera worldwide. The extreme lack of polymorphism in the K and J haplotypes outside of Asia, can now be plausibly explained as being due to genetic 'bottlenecks' that occurred in Asia before and after mites shifted from their original Eastern honeybee host. Apis mellifera / Apis cerana / Varroa / mitochondrial DNA/diversity

Background Varroa mites are widely considered the biggest honey bee health problem worldwide. Until recently, Varroa jacobsoni has been found to live and reproduce only in Asian honey bee (Apis cerana) colonies, while V. destructor successfully reproduces in both A. cerana and A. mellifera colonies. However, we have identified an island population of V. jacobsoni that is highly destructive to A. mellifera, the primary species used for pollination and honey production. The ability of these populations of mites to cross the host species boundary potentially represents an enormous threat to apiculture, and is presumably due to genetic variation that exists among populations of V. jacobsoni that influences gene expression and reproductive status. In this work, we investigate differences in gene expression between populations of V. jacobsoni reproducing on A. cerana and those either reproducing or not capable of reproducing on A. mellifera, in order to gain insight into differences that allow V. jacobsoni to overcome its normal species tropism. Results We sequenced and assembled a de novo transcriptome of V. jacobsoni. We also performed a differential gene expression analysis contrasting biological replicates of V. jacobsoni populations that differ in their ability to reproduce on A. mellifera. Using the edgeR, EBSeq and DESeq R packages for differential gene expression analysis, we found 287 differentially expressed genes (FDR ≤ 0.05), of which 91% were up regulated in mites reproducing on A. mellifera. In addition, mites found reproducing on A. mellifera showed substantially more variation in expression among replicates. We searched for orthologous genes in public databases and were able to associate 100 of these 287 differentially expressed genes with a functional description. Conclusions There is differential gene expression between the two mite groups, with more variation in gene expression among mites that were able to reproduce on A. mellifera. A small set of genes showed reduced expression in mites on the A. mellifera host, including putative transcription factors and digestive tract developmental genes. The vast majority of differentially expressed genes were up-regulated in this host. This gene set showed enrichment for genes associated with mitochondrial respiratory function and apoptosis, suggesting that mites on this host may be experiencing higher stress, and may be less optimally adapted to parasitize it. Some genes involved in reproduction and oogenesis were also overexpressed, which should be further studied in regards to this host shift. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-016-3130-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Quantifying the impact of alien invasive species on ecosystem services is an essential step in developing effective practices and policy for invasive species management. Here we develop a stochastic bioeconomic model that enables the economic impact of an invasive pest to be estimated before its arrival, based on relatively poorly specified ecological and economic parameters. We developed the model by using a hypothetical invasion of the varroa bee mite (Varroa destructor) into Australia and the negative flow-on effects that it would have on pollination by reducing honey bee populations, giving rise to a loss of pollination services, reduced crop yields, and additional production costs. If the mite were to continue to be prevented from entering the country over the next 30 years, we estimate that the economic costs avoided would be U.S. $16.4-38.8 million (Aus $21.3-50.5 million) per year. We suggest that current invasion response funding arrangements in Australia, which do not acknowledge these avoided damages, require amendment.

Varroa jacobsoni was first described as a natural ectoparasitic mite of the Eastern honeybee (Apis cerana) throughout Asia. It later switched host to the Western honeybee (A. mellifera) and has now become a serious pest of that bee worldwide. The studies reported here on genotypic, phenotypic and reproductive variation among V. jacobsoni infesting A. cerana throughout Asia demonstrate that V. jacobsoni is a complex of at least two different species. In a new classification V. jacobsoni is here redefined as encompassing nine haplotypes (mites with distinct mtDNA CO-I gene sequences) that infest A. cerana in the Malaysia–Indonesia region. Included is a Java haplotype, specimens of which were used to first describe V. jacobsoni at the beginning of this century. A new name, V. destructor n. sp., is given to six haplotypes that infest A. cerana on mainland Asia. Adult females of V. destructor are significantly larger and less spherical in shape than females of V. jacobsoni and they are also reproductively isolated from females of V. jacobsoni. The taxonomic positions of a further three unique haplotypes that infest A. cerana in the Philippines is uncertain and requires further study. Other studies reported here also show that only two of the 18 different haplotypes concealed within the complex of mites infesting A. cerana have become pests of A. mellifera worldwide. Both belong to V. destructor, and they are not V. jacobsoni. The most common is a Korea haplotype, so-called because it was also found parasitizing A. cerana in South Korea. It was identified on A. mellifera in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Less common is a Japan/Thailand haplotype, so-called because it was also found parasitizing A. cerana in Japan and Thailand. It was identified on A. mellifera in Japan, Thailand and the Americas. Our results imply that the findings of past research on V. jacobsoni are applicable mostly to V. destructor. Our results will also influence quarantine protocols for bee mites, and may present new strategies for mite control.

SUMMARYThis paper demonstrates the presence of two genetically distinct populations of Varroa jacobsoni that show contrasting abilities to reproduce on Apis mellifera and can be identified easily using simple molecular techniques. When Australian-reared A. mellifera sister queens were transported to Germany and Papua New Guinea and established in varroa-infested colonies, the female V. jacobsoni in Germany readily reproduced on their brood whereas in Papua New Guinea they did not. These observations indicate that the cause of the reported inability of female V. jacobsoni to reproduce on A. mellifera in Papua New Guinea does not rest with the resident A mellifera population. DNA sequences of a 454 base-pair region of the cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (CO1) gene obtained from reproducing V. jacobsoni collected from A. mellifera colonies in Germany differed by 6.8% from similar sequences obtained from non-reproducing V. jacobsoni from A. mellifera colonies in Papua New Guinea. The presence of a Xho I restrict...

This study has characterised a novel serotype of Sacbrood virus (SBV) infecting Apis mellifera in New Guinea that has emerged in the presence of the introduced European and Asian serotypes, which infect A. mellifera and Apis cerana, respectively. The New Guinea serotype appears to have evolved through mutation of the European serotype with no evidence of recombination between known strains, although recombination was detected in other SBV isolates from Asia. SBV was also confirmed for the first time causing disease in Apis dorsata (giant Asian honeybee) in Indonesia and found to be infected by the Asian serotype.

SUMMARYA sensitive culture technique for detecting viable spores and mycelial elements of the chalkbrood fungus, Ascosphaera apis, is described. The technique involves embedding honey or distilled water containing A. apis spores or mycelial elements in 15 ml of sterile liquid nutrient agar medium (10 g yeast, 10 g glucose, 13.5 g KH2PO4, 10 g soluble starch and 20 g agar) cooled to 60°C. This medium is then poured on a 7-ml layer of similar but solid agar medium in a standard 8.5-cm petri dish and allowed to solidify by cooling. The medium is incubated in an anaerobic environment at 37°C for 24 h, and then incubated in an aerobic environment for up to 9 days at 37°C. It is examined daily for A. apis growth. The technique facilitated the detection of viable A. apis in honey and was used to show that many pre-packaged retail honeys contain viable A. apis. The technique was also used to show that honey may be rendered free of viable A. apis by holding it in water baths at 65°C for 8 hours or at 70°C for 2 hours.

SummaryVery rapidly after Varroa destructor invaded apiaries of Apis mellifera, the devastating effect of this mite prompted an active research effort to understand and control this parasite. Over a few decades, varroa has spread to most countries exploiting A. mellifera. As a consequence, a large number of teams have worked with this organism, developing a diversity of research methods. Often different approaches have been followed to achieve the same goal. The diversity of methods made the results difficult to compare, thus hindering our understanding of this parasite. In this paper, we provide easy to use protocols for the collection, identification, diagnosis, rearing, breeding, marking and measurement of infestation rates and fertility of V. destructor. We also describe experimental protocols to study orientation and feeding of the mite, to infest colonies or cells and measure the mite's susceptibility to acaricides. Where relevant, we describe which mite should be used for bioassays since their beha...

La presence et la reproduction de l'acarien parasite V jacobsoni ont ete etudiees dans des colonies d'Apis cerana Fabr et d'A mellifera en Papouasie Nouvelle-Guinee (PNG) a differentes reprises entre 1991 et 1993, a Irian Jaya en septembre 1991 et a Java en octobre 1991. Dans les colonies d'A cerana, comme dans les colonies d'A mellifera, il y avait significativement plus de couvain de mâles que de couvain d'ouvrieres infeste par des acariens adultes, quelle que soit la localite. Dans les colonies des 2 especes, des acariens adultes vivants ont ete observes sur tous les stades de developpement du couvain de mâles et d'ouvrieres

Although Nosema ceranae was first isolated from the Asian honeybee ( Apis cerana ) in Asia and then subsequently recognized as a widespread gut parasite of the Western honeybee ( Apis mellifera ), its origins and primary host are yet to be accurately established. In this study we examined the possibility of an Asian origin for the parasite by looking for evidence of its ongoing spread out of Asia. To do this, we surveyed for the presence of N. ceranae in A. cerana and A. mellifera on isolated islands of the Solomon Islands (Pacific region), most of which were inhabited with A. mellifera that had been introduced from Australia and New Zealand at a time when N. ceranae was not present in either country, but on which some had also recently become inhabited with invasive A. cerana that originated from Asia with no prior history of contact with A. mellifera infected with N. ceranae . We also sought to verify previous findings that N. ceranae was widespread in Asian honeybees by surveying for its presence in isolated populations of the Asian honeybees, A. cerana , A. koschevnikovi , A. nigrocincta and A. florea . We obtained evidence that A. cerana introduced N. ceranae to A. mellifera in the Solomon Islands and also confirmed the widespread occurrence of the parasite in Asian honeybees, even reporting it for the first time in A. koschevnikovi from Borneo. Our findings provide further support for the hypothesis that N. ceranae has only recently emerged from Asia to become a parasite of A. mellifera .

Background The ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor has emerged as the primary pest of domestic honey bees (Apis mellifera). Here we present an initial survey of the V. destructor genome carried out to advance our understanding of Varroa biology and to identify new avenues for mite control. This sequence survey provides immediate resources for molecular and population-genetic analyses of Varroa-Apis interactions and defines the challenges ahead for a comprehensive Varroa genome project. Results The genome size was estimated by flow cytometry to be 565 Mbp, larger than most sequenced insects but modest relative to some other Acari. Genomic DNA pooled from ~1,000 mites was sequenced to 4.3× coverage with 454 pyrosequencing. The 2.4 Gbp of sequencing reads were assembled into 184,094 contigs with an N50 of 2,262 bp, totaling 294 Mbp of sequence after filtering. Genic sequences with homology to other eukaryotic genomes were identified on 13,031 of these contigs, totaling 31.3 Mbp. Alignment of protein sequence blocks conserved among V. destructor and four other arthropod genomes indicated a higher level of sequence divergence within this mite lineage relative to the tick Ixodes scapularis. A number of microbes potentially associated with V. destructor were identified in the sequence survey, including ~300 Kbp of sequence deriving from one or more bacterial species of the Actinomycetales. The presence of this bacterium was confirmed in individual mites by PCR assay, but varied significantly by age and sex of mites. Fragments of a novel virus related to the Baculoviridae were also identified in the survey. The rate of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the pooled mites was estimated to be 6.2 × 10-5per bp, a low rate consistent with the historical demography and life history of the species. Conclusions This survey has provided general tools for the research community and novel directions for investigating the biology and control of Varroa mites. Ongoing development of Varroa genomic resources will be a boon for comparative genomics of under-represented arthropods, and will further enhance the honey bee and its associated pathogens as a model system for studying host-pathogen interactions.

A study to determine the effect of pathogens on pollen collection by colonies of the honey bee, Apis mellifera L., is reported. Colonies fed preparations of 50% sucrose containing sacbrood virus particles or Nosema apis Zander spores collected significantly less pollen than colonies fed only the sucrose solution. These findings have important implications for the preparation and use of honey bee colonies for pollinating agricultural crops.

SummaryThe occurrence and distribution of pests and pathogens of the honeybee, Apis mellifera L., in Fiji, surveyed during -10—November 1986, are reported. American foulbrood disease was detected in 33 (47%) hived colonies at one locality but in only 1 (0·8%) of all other colonies examined in other localities. Infestations of wax moth (Galleria mellonella or Achroia grisella) were observed in 139 (70%) hived colonies. The cane toad Bufo marinus was also observed as a pest of bee colonies.Chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV) and sacbrood virus (SBV) were present in 30 (31%) and 76 (79%) hived colonies, respectively. Bee virus X, bee virus Y, black queen cell virus (BQCV), Kashmir bee virus (KBV), and slow bee paralysis virus were also detected in these colonies but they were less common than CBPV and SBV. Inapparent infections of SBV, BQCV and KBV were detected in seemingly healthy bees from hived colonies. SBV and CBPV were also detected in feral colonies. The Fijian KBV isolates were serologically distingu...

Mites in the genus Tropilaelaps are parasites of social honeybees. Two species, Tropilaelaps clareae and T. koenigerum, have been recorded and their primary hosts are presumed to be the giant honeybees of Asia, Apis dorsata and A. laboriosa. The most common species, T. clareae, is also an economically important pest of the introduced Western honeybee (A. mellifera) throughout Asia and is considered an emerging threat to world apiculture. In the studies reported here, genetic (mtDNA CO-I and nuclear ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 gene sequence) and morphological variation and host associations were examined among Tropilaelaps isolates collected from A. dorsata, A. laboriosa and A. mellifera throughout Asia and neighbouring regions. The results clearly indicate that the genus contains at least four species. Tropilaelaps clareae, previously assumed to be ubiquitous in Asia, was found to be two species, and it is here redefined as encompassing haplotypes (mites with distinct mtDNA gene sequences) that parasitise native A. dorsata breviligula and introduced A. mellifera in the Philippines and also native A. d. binghami on Sulawesi Island in Indonesia. Tropilaelaps mercedesae n. sp., which until now has been mistaken for T. clareae, encompasses haplotypes that, together with haplotypes of T. koenigerum, parasitise native A. d. dorsata in mainland Asia and Indonesia (except Sulawesi Island). It also parasitises introduced A. mellifera in these and surrounding regions and, with another new species, T. thaii n. sp., also parasitises A. laboriosa in mountainous Himalayan regions. Methods are described for identifying each species. These studies help to clarify the emerging threat of Tropilaelaps to world apiculture and will necessitate a revision of quarantine protocols for countries that import and export honeybees.

Varroa destructor, now a major pest of the Western honeybee,Apis mellifera, switched from its original host, the Eastern honeybee,A. cerana,ca. 50 years ago. So far, only two out of several known mitochondrial haplotypes ofV. destructorhave been found to be capable of reproducing onA. mellifera(Korea and Japan). These haplotypes are associated in almost complete cytonuclear disequilibrium to diagnostic alleles at 11 microsatellite loci. By contrast, microsatellite polymorphism within each type is virtually absent, because of a severe bottleneck at the time of host change. Accordingly, 12 mitochondrial sequences of 5185 nucleotides displayed 0.40% of nucleotide divergence between haplotypes and no intra haplotype variation. Hence, each type has a quasi–clonal structure. The nascent intratype variability is subsequent to the clone formation 50 years ago: in both types the variant alleles differ from the most common by one (in 10 cases), two (five cases) or three (one case) repeated motifs. In addition to individuals of the two ‘pure’ types, five F1hybrids and 19 recombinant individuals (Japan alleles introgressed into the Korea genetic background) were detected. The existence of F1and recombinant individuals in admixed populations requires that double infestations of honeybee cells occur in a high proportion but the persistence of pure types suggests a post–zygotic isolation between the two clones.

International audience; A total of 24 Varroa mite samples were collected from A. mellifera and A. cerana colonies in 17 Provinces in China and subjected to DNA or restriction enzyme analyses. All Varroa mites from A. mellifera were identified as the Korean genotype of Varroa destructor Anderson and Trueman, confirming earlier finding that V. jacobsoni is not present in China, and a single genotype of Varroa is infecting the A. mellifera bees. Mites collected from A. cerana colonies at 2 locations in Guangdong Province were the China genotype of V. destructor. Mites collected from A. cerana colonies in 3 apiaries at Dayao County, Yunnan Province, and from 5 colonies at Mongzi County, Yunnan Province, were a new genotype, which was named the China 2 genotype of V. destructor. Mites collected from A. cerana colonies in 4 apiaries at Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province, were the Vietnam genotype of V. destructor. These results should help future mite control and bee quarantine efforts in China.

International audience; In the debris of five Apis dorsata colonies at a single site in Sabah, Borneo we found the mites Tropilaelaps clareae, Tropilaelaps koenigerum, Varroa rindereri, Varroa jacobsoni and Euvarroa wongsirii. Most were T. clareae, but T. koenigerum were also quite common. The V. rindereri specimens belonged to the same haplotype as described previously from A. koschevnikovi from Borneo. However, the V. jacobsoni belonged to a new haplotype, which we named the 'Borneo 2 haplotype of V. jacobsoni'. Of the mites detected in the debris, 84% of the T. clareae and 57% of the T. koenigerum were damaged. Inspection of 1673 brood cells of two A. dorsata colonies at the same site resulted in adult T. clareae and T. koenigerum together with their offspring (nymphs). The percentage of infested drone and worker cells did not differ, nor did the number of mites per cell: 6.0 $\pm$ 1.6 in worker brood and 6.1 $\pm$ 1.9 in drone brood (n = 10). We found no Varroa mites in the inspected brood cells, suggesting that the mites do not reproduce in A. dorsata and indicating that interspecific mite transfer occurs between sympatric Apis species in Borneo.

International audience; Note scientifique sur la différence génétique des acariens Varroa présents sur Apis mellifera et Apis cerana.

The Report “A metagenomic survey of microbes in honey bee colony collapse disorder” (D. L. Cox-Foster et al. , 12 October 2007, p. [283][1]) identified Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) as a putative marker for colony collapse disorder (CCD). It also purports to show a relationship between U.

En complement a des etudes anterieures, la presence et la reproduction de l'acarien V jacobsoni dans des cellules de couvain opercule (prenymphes et stades ulterieurs) ont ete etudiees sur des colonies d'A cerana et d'Apis mellifera en Papouasie Nouvelle-Guinee (PNG), a Irian Jaya, i) pour des colonies d'A cerana indigenes et ii) pour des colonies d'apis mellifera importees de Java debut 1995. Dans toutes les localites il y avait proportionnellement plus de cellules de mâles que de cellules d'ouvrieres infestees par des femelles adultes de varroa, que ce soit dans les colonies d'A cerana ou d'Apis mellifera (tableaux I et II). Dans toutes les colonies d'A cerana, independamment de la localite, les femelles de varroas ne se sont raproduites dans les cellules de mâles (tableau I). Pour les colonies d'A melifera, en revanche, le resultat a varie selon la localite et l'annee. En PNG et a Irian Jaya, les femelles de varroas ne se reproduises ni dans les cellules de mâles, ni dans celles d'ouvrieres. A Java il en a ete de meme en 1992, ainsi que dans une etude anterieure faite en 1991. Mais en 1993, les femelles de varroas se sont reproduites dans les cellules d'ouvrieres et les annees suivantes, a la fois dans les cellules d'ouvrieres et celles des mâles (tableau II). A Biak et Yapen egalement, en 1995, elles se sont reproduites dans les deux types de cellules. On propose deux hypotheses comme cause possible de ce changement. Selon la premiere, les conqtraintes qui empechaient les femelles de V jacobsoni de se reproduire dans les colonies d'A mellifera a Java avant 1992 ont disparu entre janvier 1992 et fevrier 1993, leur permettant ainsi de commencer a se reproduire. Selon l'autre hypothese, une nouvelle souche de V jacobsoni, capable de se reproduire dans les cellules de couvain opercule, a ete introduite a Java entre janvier 1992 et fevrier 1993.

Fungi in the genus Ascosphaera (Plectomycetes: Ascosphaerales) are of agricultural and horticultural interest as they are only found, in nature, in association with social and solitary bees. To date, only one member of the genus, A. osmophila, has been described from Australia. In this paper, four new species of Ascosphaera, A. duoformis, A. flava, A. solina and A. subcuticulata, are described from Australia, together with previously unrecorded Australian isolates of A. acerosa, A. atra and the honey bee chalkbrood fungus, A. apis.

Summary When particles of Kashmir bee virus (KBV) and sacbrood virus (SBV) were fed to larvae of the honey bee, Apis mellifera, in Australian colonies, the resulting pupae became in apparently infected. There was no statistically significant difference in the susceptibility of 1, 2, 3 or 4-day-old larvae for either virus, but 5-day-old larvae were significantly less susceptible to SBV than younger larvae. There was no significant difference in the proportions of pupae that became in apparently infected when, as larvae, they were fed various concentrations of each virus, but significantly more larvae were removed from their cells when fed concentrated preparations of each virus than when fed diluted preparations. Susceptible larvae that became in apparently infected with KBV and SBV developed normally into in apparently infected pupae and later, emerged as in apparently infected worker bees.

The sensitivity and specificity of conventional Ouchterlony gel-diffusion, immuno-osmoelectrophoresis (IO), immune serum electron microscopy (ISEM), “decoration,” radioimmunoassay (RIA), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests for detecting black queen cell virus (BQCV), chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV), Kashmir bee virus (KBV), and sacbrood virus (SBV) particles in extracts of diseased honeybees were compared. A “slow” ISEM method detected virus particles in extracts of individuals or groups of individuals diluted to 10 −3 and 10 −4 , respectively, whereas the IO method and a “fast” ISEM method using protein A were one-tenth as sensitive, and Ouchterlony gel-diffusion tests were only one-thousandth as sensitive. Using the antibody “decoration” technique, mixtures of serologically unrelated virus particles could be resolved. RIA and ELISA were found to be one thousand times more sensitive than ISEM in detecting the particles of BQCV, CBPV, KBV, and SBV; however, nonspecific reactions occurred when using RIA with very dilute particle suspensions, and this made dilution endpoints difficult to assess, but this did not occur when using the ELISA method. There was little difference in the effectiveness of rabbit or hen antisera in the tests, except when protein A was used as it does not combine with hen antibodies.