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Background Globally, 5% of 247 million global malaria cases are reported Uganda which is also one of the top refugee hosting countries in Africa, with 1.36 million refugees currently. Although malaria is an emerging challenge for humanitarian response in refugee settlements, little is known about its risk factors. The study analysed data from the 2018-19 Uganda Malaria Indicator Survey (UMIS) to determine the factors associated with malaria infections among refugee children under five years of age. Methods The analysis was run using the ‘Individual dataset’ of UMIS. The independent variables related to the demographic, social-economic and environmental information on 3,481 refugees spreading across the country. The rapid diagnostics test results was the outcome variable. Multivariate logistic regression was performed to identify predictors of the malaria infections. Results Overall, the prevalence of malaria infections in all refugee settlements across the nine hosting districts was 36.6%. Malaria infections were higher in refugee settlements located in Isingiro (98.7%), Kyegegwa (58.6%) and Arua (57.4%) districts. The odds of contracting malaria were higher in refugee households whose children were aged 31–45 months (AOR = 2.14, 95% CI = 1.32–3.47) and above 45 months (AOR = 2.01, 95% CI = 1.22–3.32). Households whose main sources of domestic water were open water sources, boreholes and water tanks, were 1.22 (AOR = 1.22, 95% CI = 0.08–0.59), 2.11(AOR = 2.11, 95% CI = 0.91–4.89) and 4.47(AOR = 4.47, 95% CI = 1.67–11.9) times more likely to have their children contracting malaria. Households which used pit latrines and those without any toilet facility or used open defecation methods were 1.48 (AOR = 1.48, 95% CI = 1.03–2.13) and 3.29 (AOR = 3.29, 95% CI = 1.54–7.05) times more likely to have their children contracting malaria. Households which did not have insecticide treated bed nets or sprayed their households were 1.15 (AOD = 1.15, 95% CI = 0.43–3.13) and 8.04 (AOD = 8.04, 95% CI = 2.47–26.2) times more likely to have their children contracting malaria. Households which did not know that mosquito bites caused malaria, were 1.09 (AOD = 1.09, 95%=0.79–1.51) times more likely to have their children getting malaria. Conclusions These findings suggest that humanitarian responses and investments that reduce survival, biting, feeding, parasite development and breeding of mosquitoes will provide malaria health benefits in refugee settlements in Uganda.

Generally, landslide susceptibility mapping is an important step in mitigating their impacts. There is, however, particular dearth of information on the application of GIS-based bivariate methods particularly the weights of evidence model in mapping landslide susceptibility on the slopes of Mount Elgon in eastern Uganda. This study, therefore, evaluated the susceptibility of Bukalasi milli-watershed to landslides, as an early warning strategy for the major landslide hotspot in Uganda. A landslide inventory for the study area was prepared, and the weights of influence of selected landslide-conditioning factors were calculated to present their relative importance in landslide susceptibility. Eight conditioning factors were considered in this study namely; land use, lithology, rainfall, elevation, slope aspect, slope angle, plan curvature and profile curvature. Following the results of the Agterberg-Cheng conditional independence test (probability = 62.5%), the hypothesis of conditional independence among these factors was accepted. Validation using the ROC indicated satisfactory performance of the model considering the model prediction rate (Area under the Curve = 0.882) and success rate (Area under the Curve = 0.912). The final landslide susceptibility map highlights high susceptibility in the southern and western parts of the study area. It further shows that whereas Bukibumbi, Bundesi and Suume parishes are the most prone parishes, Shibanga Parish is relatively the least prone to landslides disasters. Thus, such highly susceptible areas should be prioritised during intervention programmes, especially relocation of the residents at risk. Since the absence of forests has been indicated to exacerbate susceptibility to landslides, deforestation should have severe penalties, and extensive tree-planting should instead be encouraged. Other human activities like farming on fragile slopes, which would further destabilise the slopes should particularly be discouraged.

Generally, soil characteristics have a significant influence on landslide occurrence. This issue has, however, not yet been adequately analysed in Kigezi highlands of South Western Uganda. In this study, soil properties such as dispersion, grain size distribution, Atterberg limits, shear strength and clay mineralogy were analysed to establish their contribution to the spatial distribution of landslides in Kigezi highlands. The results demonstrate that deep soil profiles ranging between 2.5 and 7 meters were dominated by clay-pans at a depth between 0.75 and 3 meters. Although the uppermost surface horizons of the soil profile are loamy sand, the clay content is more than 35% especially in the sub soil. This suggests that the soil materials are Vertic in nature. In addition, the upper soil layers predominantly contain quartz, while subsurface horizons have considerable amounts of illite as the dominant clay minerals, ranging from 43–47%. The average liquid limit and plasticity index was 58.43% and 33.3% respectively. Besides, high average computed weighted plasticity index (28.4%) and expansiveness (38.6%) were obtained. These soil characteristics have great implication on the timing and nature of landslide processes in the study area. A change in soil material due to varying moisture content is thought to be a major trigger of landslides in Kigezi highlands of South Western Uganda. This understanding of soil characteristics is a key step in mitigating landslide hazards in the area.

The upper Rwizi river system in South Western Uganda has been severely degraded due to encroachment and unsustainable resource utilization. Little is, however, known about the link between the upper Rwizi macro-watershed health and land use/cover patterns from the spatiotemporal perspective. This study evaluated the relationship between spatiotemporal land use/ cover change and upper river Rwizi macro watershed health. Remotely sensed data was used to analyze the spatiotemporal land use and cover distribution for upper Rwizi macro watershed. The analysis was done using Landsat and Sentinel imagery datasets spanning 1990 to 2020 and 2016 to 2021 respectively. Field verification was undertaken to confirm the land use, cover types, and evaluate the implications of prevailing anthropogenic activities on the watershed health. The land use and cover characteristics in the upper Rwizi macro-watershed exhibits both highly spatial and temporal variations. By 1990, grassland as the dominant land use and cover type spanned 45% of the total study area followed by farmland at 30%. Forests, open water and settlements covered 12%, 10% and 3% respectively. Whereas grassland and forest cover has diminished drastically by 64% and 71% respectively, settlements and farmland have increased tremendously by 79% and 50% respectively between 1990 and 2020. The hillslope hydrological characteristics in the watershed are severely hampered due to increased human activities. It is, therefore, recommended that afforestation in the degraded areas be undertaken to restore the watershed health which could improve on hillslope hydrology.

An assessment of the socio-economic implications of landslide occurrence in the Kigezi highlands of South Western Uganda was conducted. Landslide occurrence is on the increase and threatens community livelihoods in these highlands. Detailed field investigations were undertaken with the help of local communities between June 2018 and May 2020 to identify and map recent and visible landslide scars in Rukiga uplands of Kigezi highlands. In the course of field inventories, 85 visible landslide scars were identified and mapped using handheld GPS receivers to produce a landslide distribution map for the study area. A socio-economic analysis was conducted to establish the effects of landslide damage on people’s livelihoods as well as their existing coping and adaptation mechanisms. The assessment was administered through field observations and surveying, focus group discussions, key informants and household interviews as well as the use of Local Government Environmental Reports. The study established an increase in the spatial-temporal distribution of landslides over the Kigezi highlands in the past 40 years. The landslides have resulted in a reduction in the quality of land, loss of lives, destruction of transport infrastructures, settlements, farmlands, crops and other socio-economic infrastructures. Therefore, it is important to look for reliable and sustainable measures to prevent landslide hazards. Total landscape reforestation with deep-rooted trees can possibly reduce the landslide risk. It is also important to undertake policy implementation for preparedness and mitigation plans against landslides in this region and in the country at large. Proper soil and water conservation measures could help in enhancing soil strength against landslide hazards.

An assessment of the influence of topography on landslide occurrence in the Kigezi highlands of southwestern Uganda was conducted. Whereas the frequency and magnitude of landslides in these highlands are on the increase, the topographic attributes underpinning landslide occurrence are not well understood. Sixty-five landslide scars were surveyed and mapped to produce landslide distribution maps. Specific topographic parameters, namely slope gradient, profile curvature, topographic wetness index (TWI), stream power index (SPI), and topographic position index (TPI), were assessed on landslide slope sites. The attributes were parameterized in the field and GIS environment using a 10-m DEM. Landslides were noted to concentrate along narrow topographic hollows, as opposed to broad concave slopes in the landscape. The occurrence is dominant in slope zones where slope gradient, profile curvature, TWI, TPI, and SPI are 25°–35°, 0.1–5, 8–18, − 1–1, and > 10, respectively. It was established that profile curvature and slope gradient are the most and least significant topographic parameters in landslide occurrence (R2 = 0.802, p value = 0.088 and R2 = 0.5665, p value = 0.057), respectively. An understanding of these topographic underpinnings would serve to identify and predict potential landslide zones within the landscape and enhance landslide hazard mitigation.

Smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa are at a greater risk to the impacts of climate variability. We therefore sought to assess vulnerability of smallholder sorghum farmers to climate variability in Kigezi highlands of south-western Uganda. A vulnerability index that integrates selected socio-economic and biophysical variables was obtained through key informant interviews and household surveys, from 230 conveniently sampled sorghum farming households within three sub-counties differentiated by altitude. Rainfall data were obtained from Uganda National Meteorological Authority. Quantitative data were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (version 23) and STATA software to generate inferential and descriptive statistics, notably frequencies, percentages and chi-square tests, to establish relationship between variables. Content analysis was used to generate themes emerging from the qualitative data. The overall vulnerability index results indicate Kashambya as the most vulnerable (6.9), followed by Bubare (1.8), while Kamwezi was the least vulnerable (-0.2). This study recommends targeted extension services such as access to customised weather information and better agronomic practices to reduce smallholder sorghum farmers' vulnerability.

This chapter examines the influence of agricultural land uses on the occurrence of landslides in the humid tropical environments of Kigezi highlands in South Western Uganda. Analysis of the agricultural land use practices is a prerequisite to understanding landscape fragility and community resilience to landslide hazards. An analysis of agricultural land use patterns was undertaken through interpretation of Sentinel 2A images for 2016. The imagery data was acquired from the European Space Agency (ESA) Sentinels Scientific Data Hub. Field surveys and investigations were also carried out to establish and map the spatial distribution of landslide hazards. Six agricultural land use categories were identified, namely, annuals, perennials, grazing, fallow, wood lots and agroforestry. Considering the agricultural land use patterns, annual crops are the dominant agricultural land use type spanning 69% of the total area followed; by perennials (13%). Grazing land and fallows covered 11% and 5%, respectively. The study revealed that annual crop land is the most affected agricultural land use category. Out of the 65 landslide scars mapped, 31% occurred on annual crop areas. Wood lot areas experienced the least landslide occurrence (4%). A close spatial distribution of agricultural land use practices and landslide occurrence is discernible. It is recommended that a comprehensive tree planting campaign be carried out in areas prone to landslides since it was inferred that wood lots suffered least from landslides. It is also recommended that farmers be encouraged to restore and manage terrace bunds which could help to check on water velocity and consequently increase on slope stability.