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Hemidactylus frenatus Figures 1 and 4 (a), Table 2 specimens examined: CMDN-R 46, 143. Distribution in the KTM Valley: Two specimens encountered in Lalitput. This species is likely common throughout urban areas. We found two individuals of this species on the exterior of a house in Lalitpur, KTM Valley (Figures 1 and 4 (a))., Published as part of O, Kyle A., Connell, Aryal, Prakash C., Sherchan, Adarsh M., Dhakal, Bimala, Chaudhary, Hemanta Kumari, Ranabhat, Rishi & Karmacharya, Dibesh, 2019, A herpetological survey of the Kathmandu Valleyı Nepalı and phylogenetic identification of Megophrys (Xenophrys) zhangi, pp. 1421-1437 in Journal of Natural History 53 (23) on page 1432, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2019.1655106, http://zenodo.org/record/3670114

Megophrys (Xenophrys) zhangi Figures 1 and 3 (d – g); Tables 2, S 1, S 2 specimens examined: CMDN-A 48 – 49, 56 – 59, 64 – 66, 83 – 85, 87 – 88, 98 – 101, 104 – 118, 129 – 150, 154, 164 – 165, 167 – 170. Distribution in the KTM Valley: Encountered at all non-urban localities surveyed. Remarks: We encountered large numbers of Megophrys zhangi around the KTM Valley (Table 2; Figure 1). This species was traditionally classified as Megophrys parva until Chen et al. (2017) assigned several Megophrys species to Xenophrys, including M. parva. Alternatively, Mahony et al. (2017) classified Xenophrys as a subgenus of Megophrys which is the arrangement we favour in this manuscript. Our phylogenetic analyses revealed a close phylogenetic affinity between Megophrys parva from the KTM Valley and M. zhangi (Ye and Fei 1992) from the type locality (Figure 5). The type locality of M. zhangi is Zhangmu, Xizang, China, close to the Nepal-China border in the foothills of the Himalayas ~ 55 km from KTM Valley. However, Mahony et al. (2018) found that this M. zhangi individual (sequenced by Chen et al. 2017) shared an identical 16s haplotype with one of their two M. monticola haplotype groups from Darjeeling (‘ mid-elevation mitochondrial haplotype group ’). Using nuclear sequence data, Mahony et al. (2018) show that the two haplotype groups of M. monticola represent a single species that exhibit deep divergence with M. zhangi. Mahony et al. (2018) suggest that the shared haplotype may represent mitochondrial capture between these sister species. Thus, using 16s sequence we were unable to verify if the Nepalese sequences pertain to M. zhangi or M. monticola, though the geographic proximity to the M. zhangi type locality would support the former hypothesis. However, Mahony et al. (2018) differentiated M. zhangi (using the original description) from M. monticola based on a smaller SVL in the former. They state that in male specimens of M. zhangi (n = 3), SVL = 32.5 – 37.2 mm, compared with those of M. monticola (n = 17), SVL = 38.2 – 49.5 mm. SVL for the KTM Valley Megophrys range from 35 to 43.2 mm, overlapping the ranges given for the two species. However, the PCA of the 10 characters shared between our studies strongly separates the KTM Valley individuals from M. monticola, suggesting that the KTM Megophrys are on average much smaller (Figure 5 (b)). For this reason, we reclassify Megophrys parva from the KTM Valley to M. zhangi. Because we only sequenced specimens from the KTM Valley, we suggest that other Megophrys species may be present in other regions of Nepal outside of the KTM Valley (Mahony et al. 2018). Megophrys zhangi was encountered on the banks of streams and around areas with running water (Figure 3 (g)). While we usually observed them in intact habitats, they were also commonly encountered near disturbed areas with running water, but never in urban areas. Males called as early as 1600 during heavy rain but usually began calling at sundown (1900 in August). Females were found as far as 250 m from water, and always on the ground (Figure 3 (e)). Males perched ~ 1 m above the water when calling, and always faced the water. At each locality males utilised different perch taxa ranging from bushes, to large rocks, to man-made structures (Figure 3 (d,g)). This species was usually encountered in the same localities as Nanorana liebigii, but the two species were never observed in syntopy. At one locality in east Shivapuri, we encountered large numbers of larvae present in a shallow pool along with larvae and a juvenile of Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Figure 3 (f)). Measurements: The mean, followed by the range in parenthesis is given for males (n = 26), followed by females (n = 2). SVL = 39.2 mm (35 – 43.2 mm), 43.8 mm (40 – 47.8 mm); HL = 12.4 mm (10.0 – 14.8 mm), 13.0 mm (11.2 – 14.8 mm); HW = 14.9 mm (12.0 – 17.0 mm), 15.8 mm (14.9 – 16.6 mm); snout = 4.1 mm (3.3 – 5.7 mm), 4.2 mm (3.7 – 4.7 mm); internarial = 5.0 mm (3.8 – 5.8 mm), 4.65 mm (4.6 – 4.7 mm); eye = 3.5 mm (2.5 – 4.5 mm), 4.35 mm (3.9 – 4.8 mm); tympanum = 2.1 mm (1.7 – 2.7 mm), 2.6 mm (2.5 – 2.7 mm); antebrachium = 8.7 mm (7.1 – 10.2 mm), 8.1 mm (7 – 9.2 mm); hand = 10.5 mm (9.2 – 12.0 mm), 12 mm; thigh = 15.2 mm (13.5 – 17.5 mm), 14.5 mm (12.9 – 16.1 mm); shank = 16.8 mm (14.4 – 18.8), 17.1 mm (15.2 – 19 mm); foot = 27 mm (23.7 – 29.3 mm), 28.4 mm (27.6 – 29.1 mm)., Published as part of O, Kyle A., Connell, Aryal, Prakash C., Sherchan, Adarsh M., Dhakal, Bimala, Chaudhary, Hemanta Kumari, Ranabhat, Rishi & Karmacharya, Dibesh, 2019, A herpetological survey of the Kathmandu Valleyı Nepalı and phylogenetic identification of Megophrys (Xenophrys) zhangi, pp. 1421-1437 in Journal of Natural History 53 (23) on pages 1428-1431, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2019.1655106, http://zenodo.org/record/3670114, {"references":["Chen JM, Zhou WW, Poyarkov NA, Stuart BL, Brown RM, Lathrop A, Wang YY, Yuan ZY, Jiang K, Hou M, et al. 2017. A novel multilocus phylogenetic estimation reveals unrecognized diversity in Asian horned toads, genus Megophrys sensu lato (Anura: Megophryidae). Mol Phylogenet and Evol. 106: 28 - 43. doi: 10.1016 / j. ympev. 2016.09.004","Mahony S, Foley NM, Biju SD, Teeling EC. 2017. Evolutionary history of the Asian Horned Frogs (Megophryinae): integrative approaches to timetree dating in the absence of a fossil record. Mol Biol and Evol. 34: 744 - 771.","Ye CY, Fei L. 1992. A new pelobatid toad of the genus Megophrys from Xizang, China. Acta Herpetol Sinica. 1 - 2: 50 - 52.","Mahony S, Kamei RG, Teeling EC, Biju SD. 2018. Cryptic diversity within the Megophrys major species group (Amphibia: Megophryidae) of the Asian Horned Frogs: phylogenetic perspectives and a taxonomic revision of South Asian taxa, with descriptions of four new species. Zootaxa. 4523: 1 - 96. doi: 10.11646 / zootaxa. 4523.1"]}

Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis Figures 1 and 3 (c); Table 2 specimens examined: CMDN-A 157. Distribution in the KTM Valley: Encountered only in Lalitpur, but Aryal et al. (2013) encountered this species in urban wetlands throughout the KTM Valley. Remarks: This specimen was encountered in shallow water on the edge of a small pond near an urban area (Figures 1 and 3 (c)). It was found in sympatry with Fejervarya syhadrensis, Microhyla ornata, and Duttaphrynus melanostictis. This male specimen was calling when approached., Published as part of O, Kyle A., Connell, Aryal, Prakash C., Sherchan, Adarsh M., Dhakal, Bimala, Chaudhary, Hemanta Kumari, Ranabhat, Rishi & Karmacharya, Dibesh, 2019, A herpetological survey of the Kathmandu Valleyı Nepalı and phylogenetic identification of Megophrys (Xenophrys) zhangi, pp. 1421-1437 in Journal of Natural History 53 (23) on page 1428, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2019.1655106, http://zenodo.org/record/3670114, {"references":["Aryal PC, Kharel SC, Bhurtel BP, Paudel EN, Dhamala MK, Rijal B, Thapa A. 2013. An amphibian survey in Kathmandu Valley. Nepal. Biodiv. Cons. Efforts Nepal. 3: 1 - 3."]}

O, Kyle A., Connell, Aryal, Prakash C., Sherchan, Adarsh M., Dhakal, Bimala, Chaudhary, Hemanta Kumari, Ranabhat, Rishi, Karmacharya, Dibesh (2019): A herpetological survey of the Kathmandu Valleyı Nepalı and phylogenetic identification of Megophrys (Xenophrys) zhangi. Journal of Natural History 53 (23): 1421-1437, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2019.1655106

Hoplobatrachus tigerinus Figures 1 and 3 (a – b); Table 2 specimens examined: CMDN-A 91 – 96, 156. Distribution in the KTM Valley: Encountered only in Lalitpur. Neither Pokhrel et al. (2011) or Aryal et al. (2013) encountered this species. Remarks: We observed large numbers of this species on the edge of an urban area. We encountered a large adult calling in a shallow pool on the edge of a village road in the vicinity of Microhyla, which were also calling (Figure 1; Figure 3 (b)). When approached, the frog raised its posterior end in a defensive position, as has been previously reported for this species (Anders 2002). We also observed large numbers of individuals in a wetland where males were calling (Figures 3 (a) and 4(d)). Several juveniles were also present at this locality, which probably represents common breeding habitat for this species in the KTM Valley., Published as part of O, Kyle A., Connell, Aryal, Prakash C., Sherchan, Adarsh M., Dhakal, Bimala, Chaudhary, Hemanta Kumari, Ranabhat, Rishi & Karmacharya, Dibesh, 2019, A herpetological survey of the Kathmandu Valleyı Nepalı and phylogenetic identification of Megophrys (Xenophrys) zhangi, pp. 1421-1437 in Journal of Natural History 53 (23) on page 1427, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2019.1655106, http://zenodo.org/record/3670114, {"references":["Pokhrel GK, Aryal PC, Shah KB, Rjal B, Suwal MK, Kharel SC, Paudel E, Dhamala MK. 2011. Herpetofaunal diversity of nagarjun forest. Nepal J Sci and Tech. 12: 358 - 365. doi: 10.3126 / njst. v 12 i 0.6524","Aryal PC, Kharel SC, Bhurtel BP, Paudel EN, Dhamala MK, Rijal B, Thapa A. 2013. An amphibian survey in Kathmandu Valley. Nepal. Biodiv. Cons. Efforts Nepal. 3: 1 - 3.","Anders C. 2002. Class Amphibia (amphibians). In: Schleich HH, Kastle W, editors. Amphibians and reptiles of Nepal. Ruggell: A. R. G. Gantner Verlag K. G.; p. 133 - 340."]}

Herpetoreas platyceps Figures 1 and 4 (c), Table 2 specimens examined: CMDN-R 81. Distribution in the KTM Valley: Encountered only in Nagarkot, although Pokhrel et al. (2011) also reported it from Nagarjun NP. Remarks: This species was encountered crossing a trail at dusk just above Nagarkot in disturbed forest., Published as part of O, Kyle A., Connell, Aryal, Prakash C., Sherchan, Adarsh M., Dhakal, Bimala, Chaudhary, Hemanta Kumari, Ranabhat, Rishi & Karmacharya, Dibesh, 2019, A herpetological survey of the Kathmandu Valleyı Nepalı and phylogenetic identification of Megophrys (Xenophrys) zhangi, pp. 1421-1437 in Journal of Natural History 53 (23) on page 1432, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2019.1655106, http://zenodo.org/record/3670114, {"references":["Pokhrel GK, Aryal PC, Shah KB, Rjal B, Suwal MK, Kharel SC, Paudel E, Dhamala MK. 2011. Herpetofaunal diversity of nagarjun forest. Nepal J Sci and Tech. 12: 358 - 365. doi: 10.3126 / njst. v 12 i 0.6524"]}

Fejervarya syhadrensis Figures 1 and 3 (f – h); Table 2 specimens examined: CMDN-A 17, 61, 68 – 70, 82. Distribution in the KTM Valley: Encountered at Godawari, Nagarkot, and Lalitpur. Pokhrel et al. (2011) and Aryal et al. (2013) reported this species from the whole KTM Valley, suggesting that it is widely distributed. Remarks: We encountered this species at three disturbed or urban localities, which is commonly the habitat used by species of this genus (Grosjean 2011). The first locality was in a livestock pasture, where large numbers of large-bodied larvae were present (Figures 2 (f) and 4(d)). At the second locality one adult was observed in grass near a large wetland in an urban area (Figure 2 (g)). At the third locality an adult was observed in thick grass near a large pond (Figure 1; Figure 2 (h)). Although past authors (e.g. Anders 2002) classified all Fejervarya from KTM as F. syhadrensis, sympatry and cryptic species in this genus are common, and further molecular work would help to confirm the species identity of all Fejervarya in KTM (Kotaki et al. 2009; Grosjean 2011)., Published as part of O, Kyle A., Connell, Aryal, Prakash C., Sherchan, Adarsh M., Dhakal, Bimala, Chaudhary, Hemanta Kumari, Ranabhat, Rishi & Karmacharya, Dibesh, 2019, A herpetological survey of the Kathmandu Valleyı Nepalı and phylogenetic identification of Megophrys (Xenophrys) zhangi, pp. 1421-1437 in Journal of Natural History 53 (23) on page 1427, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2019.1655106, http://zenodo.org/record/3670114, {"references":["Pokhrel GK, Aryal PC, Shah KB, Rjal B, Suwal MK, Kharel SC, Paudel E, Dhamala MK. 2011. Herpetofaunal diversity of nagarjun forest. Nepal J Sci and Tech. 12: 358 - 365. doi: 10.3126 / njst. v 12 i 0.6524","Aryal PC, Kharel SC, Bhurtel BP, Paudel EN, Dhamala MK, Rijal B, Thapa A. 2013. An amphibian survey in Kathmandu Valley. Nepal. Biodiv. Cons. Efforts Nepal. 3: 1 - 3.","Grosjean S. 2011. Description of the advertisement calls of nine species of Fejervarya Bolkay, 1915 and Minervarya Dubois, Ohler and Biju, 2001 from China, India and Nepal. Alytes. 27: 117 - 141.","Anders C. 2002. Class Amphibia (amphibians). In: Schleich HH, Kastle W, editors. Amphibians and reptiles of Nepal. Ruggell: A. R. G. Gantner Verlag K. G.; p. 133 - 340.","Kotaki M, Kurabayashi A, Matsui M, Kuramoto M, Djong TH, Sumida M. 2009. Molecular phylogeny of the diversified frogs of genus Fejervarya (Anura: Dicroglossidae). Zool Sc. 27: 386 - 395. doi: 10.2108 / zsj. 27.386"]}

Duttaphrynus melanostictis Figures 1 and 2 (a); Tables 2, S 1 specimens examined: CMDN-A 60 – 63, 97, 119 – 129, 151, 155, 172, 162. Distribution in the KTM Valley: Encountered in the periphery of Shivapuri-Nagarjun National Park, and Lalitpur. They have been previously reported from the southern part of KTM Valley (Aryal et al. 2013). Remarks: This species is common in disturbed and urban areas. At three sites we visited in the western part of the valley, this was the only amphibian or reptile species we encountered (Figures 1 and 2 (a)). We often found this species near areas with other human-commensals, but farther from the water. We also encountered this species on the eastern edge of Shivapuri-Nagarjun National Park. At this locality, we encountered larvae and one juvenile of this species syntopic with Megophrys zhangi larvae and adults. We used DNA barcoding to confirm the identity of the juvenile specimen (Table S2, phylogeny not shown). Measurements: Measurements are given in mm as the mean, followed by the range in parentheses (n = 3). SVL = 98.4 mm (64 – 145 mm), HL = 16.2 mm (12.7 – 20 mm), HW = 33.2 mm (25 – 20 mm), snout = 7.3 mm (5.5 – 8.2 mm), internarial = 5.8 mm (5.3 – 6.7 mm), eye = 4.4 mm (4.0 – 4.7 mm), tympanum = 5.0 mm (4.5 – 5.7 mm), antebrachium = 22.1 mm (16.1 – 30 mm), hand = 18.4 mm (14.1 – 20.8 mm), thigh = 23.7 mm (12.5 – 43 mm), shank = 28.6 mm (20.1 – 35 mm), foot = 48.8 mm (38.3 – 60.4 mm)., Published as part of O, Kyle A., Connell, Aryal, Prakash C., Sherchan, Adarsh M., Dhakal, Bimala, Chaudhary, Hemanta Kumari, Ranabhat, Rishi & Karmacharya, Dibesh, 2019, A herpetological survey of the Kathmandu Valleyı Nepalı and phylogenetic identification of Megophrys (Xenophrys) zhangi, pp. 1421-1437 in Journal of Natural History 53 (23) on page 1425, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2019.1655106, http://zenodo.org/record/3670114, {"references":["Aryal PC, Kharel SC, Bhurtel BP, Paudel EN, Dhamala MK, Rijal B, Thapa A. 2013. An amphibian survey in Kathmandu Valley. Nepal. Biodiv. Cons. Efforts Nepal. 3: 1 - 3."]}

Calotes versicolor Figure 1; Table 2 Distribution in the KTM Valley: A single individual was encountered in Shivapuri National Park. Pokhrel et al. (2011) recorded them from Nagarjun NP. Remarks:This specimen was encountered at 1400 on an exposed hillside in dry disturbed habitat (grassland) on the south side of Shivapuri National Park (Figure 1). It fled when approached., Published as part of O, Kyle A., Connell, Aryal, Prakash C., Sherchan, Adarsh M., Dhakal, Bimala, Chaudhary, Hemanta Kumari, Ranabhat, Rishi & Karmacharya, Dibesh, 2019, A herpetological survey of the Kathmandu Valleyı Nepalı and phylogenetic identification of Megophrys (Xenophrys) zhangi, pp. 1421-1437 in Journal of Natural History 53 (23) on page 1432, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2019.1655106, http://zenodo.org/record/3670114, {"references":["Pokhrel GK, Aryal PC, Shah KB, Rjal B, Suwal MK, Kharel SC, Paudel E, Dhamala MK. 2011. Herpetofaunal diversity of nagarjun forest. Nepal J Sci and Tech. 12: 358 - 365. doi: 10.3126 / njst. v 12 i 0.6524"]}

Microhyla ornata Figures 1 and 3 (h); Table 2 specimens examined: CMDN-A 47, 138 – 139, 149 – 150. Distribution in the KTM Valley: Encountered in Lalitpur and Shreshnaryan, although Aryal et al. (2013) also encountered the species in north-western KTM Valley. Remarks: Microhyla were found at four sites around ponds or wetlands (Figure 1). Males were always encountered while calling, usually from under grass, about onehalf metre from the water (Figure 3 (h)). Larvae were usually present in large numbers in the water sources around which adults were calling. Recent work suggests that Nepal contains multiple species of Microhyla, and that the specimens encountered around KTM may belong to a related species, rather than M. ornata (Khatiwada et al. 2017). Molecular sequencing or in-depth morphological analysis would help resolve the taxonomic position of KTM Microhyla. Because we only encountered this species outside of national parks, we were unable to conduct further analyses (Figure 1)., Published as part of O, Kyle A., Connell, Aryal, Prakash C., Sherchan, Adarsh M., Dhakal, Bimala, Chaudhary, Hemanta Kumari, Ranabhat, Rishi & Karmacharya, Dibesh, 2019, A herpetological survey of the Kathmandu Valleyı Nepalı and phylogenetic identification of Megophrys (Xenophrys) zhangi, pp. 1421-1437 in Journal of Natural History 53 (23) on page 1431, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2019.1655106, http://zenodo.org/record/3670114, {"references":["Aryal PC, Kharel SC, Bhurtel BP, Paudel EN, Dhamala MK, Rijal B, Thapa A. 2013. An amphibian survey in Kathmandu Valley. Nepal. Biodiv. Cons. Efforts Nepal. 3: 1 - 3.","Khatiwada JR, Shu GC, Wang SH, Thapa A, Wang B, Jiang J. 2017. A new species of the genus Microhyla (Anura: Microhylidae) from Eastern Nepal. Zootaxa. 4254: 221 - 239. doi: 10.11646 / zootaxa. 4254.2"]}