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At the University Hospital Institute Méditerranée Infection (IHU, Marseille, France), for almost thirty years, veterinarians have been carrying out epidemiological investigations, together with doctors, on animals living near human cases of zoonoses, on the one hand, and on the other hand, transverse and longitudinal epidemiological surveillance studies on animals which are reservoirs, vectors or sentinels of potentially zoonotic infections,. This article presents the methods adopted and the results obtained from these studies. They have been the subject of 76 peer-reviewed publications relating to wild animals (37 publications) and/or domestic animals (48 publications). These studies were often carried out in the field with veterinarians from the French army's health service (39 publications). They were at the origin of the detection of some thirty zoonotic pathogens in the laboratories of the IHU (64 publications) and/or other French laboratories (18 publications). Our approach is an original embodiment of the “One Health” concept., Highlights • At the University Hospital Institute Méditerranée Infection (Marseille, France), veterinarians have been carrying out epidemiological investigations on zoonotic pathogens in animals. • The article presents the methods adopted and the results obtained which have been the subjects of 76 peer-reviewed publications relating to wild animals (37 papers) and/or domestic animals (48 papers). • Our work is an original approach of the “One Health” concept.

International audience; Hepatic capillariasis is a rare and neglected zoonosis affecting wild and synanthropic small rodents. It is caused by infection with Calodium hepaticum in liver. Despite the worldwide distribution of the host Rattus norvegicus (brown or street rats) in the urban area, the epidemiological status of this parasitosis remains unknown. In the present study, we examined a total of 27 brown rats from the city centre and a garden (four km from the city centre) of Marseille, France. All rats were autopsied and 52% showed the presence of C. hepaticum eggs in the liver. This result draws general attention to public health risks, since street rats are living near the human population.

Because of their free-ranging nature, the probability of wild animals being exposed to vector-borne pathogens is likely higher than that of humans and pets. Recently, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) has been suspected as being a reservoir or host of several pathogens of veterinary and public health importance. We conducted a molecular survey on 93 red foxes hunted in 2008-18, in the departments of Bouches-du-Rhone and Var, in southeastern France, for pathogens including Leishmania infantum, Piroplasmida, Hepatozoon spp., nematodes, Coxiella burnetii, Borrelia spp., Rickettsia spp., and Anaplasmataceae. Spleen samples were screened for the presence of vector-borne pathogens by PCR followed by sequencing. Pathogens were detected in 94% (87/93) of red foxes, and coinfections were identified in 24% (22/93) of foxes. We identified DNA from Hepatozoon canis, L. infantum, and Babesia vogeli in 92% (86/93), 15% (14/93), and 3% (3/93) of red foxes, respectively. We also found DNA of nematodes in 3% (3/93) of foxes; Spirocerca vulpis was identified in one fox and Dirofilaria immitis in the two others. Interestingly, C. burnetii genotype 3, previously described in humans from the same region, was identified in 3% (3/93) of foxes and Anaplasma platys in 2% (2/93) of foxes. We did not detect DNA of Borrelia spp., Bartonella spp., or Rickettsia spp. In our study, the prevalence of pathogens did not vary by fox origin, sex, or tick carriage. Molecular evidence of B. vogeli, H. canis, S. vulpis, D. immitis, C. burnetii, and A. platys in red foxes has not previously, to our knowledge, been reported from southern France. We propose that red foxes are potential reservoirs for several pathogens, including major zoonotic agents such as L. infantum. They could be incidental hosts for pathogens, such C. burnetii. The high prevalence for H. canis suggests an important role of foxes in domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) infection. These animals may pose a threat to human and animal health.

Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a tick-borne disease that can be contracted by direct contact with viremic animals or humans. In West Africa, recurrent CCHF outbreaks have been constantly observed in Mauritania and Senegal. Moreover, acquisition and epidemiology of the infection in humans are correlated with the occurrence and the seroprevalence of the virus in livestock. The main objective of this study is to provide updated information on the local spread of CCHF in animals in the northern region of Senegal. Out of a total of 283 animal sera collected, CCHF-specific antibodies were identified in 92 (32.5%; confidence interval [CI](95%) 27.1-38.3) sera by double antigen sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test. The prevalence of CCHF virus (CCHFV) infection among horses, cattle, sheep, dogs, donkeys, and goats was 70.3% (45/64), 57.1% (8/14), 22.1% (30/136), 18.2% (2/11), 17.2% (5/29), and 6.9% (2/29), respectively. The antibody titers were found significantly affected by age (p < 0.0001) and gender (p < 0.05). High tick infestation by Rhipicephalus spp. and Hyalomma spp. was recorded on horses. The high seroprevalence to CCHFV among animals in the northern region of Senegal observed in this study indicates the permanent presence of the infection in the northern region of the country suggesting the need to strengthen surveillance plans for CCHF in Senegal.

International audience; African animal trypanosomosis are parasitic diseases caused by several protozoa of the genus Trypanosoma, transmitted by hematophagous insects, essentially tsetse flies, but also, less frequently by Tabanidae and Stomoxidae. They are geolocated in a part of the continent and affect livestock animals and carnivores; dogs are especially sensitive to them. They do not seem to present a zoonotic risk. Despite the chemical prevention with trypanocides for French military working dogs on mission in Cote d'Ivoire, a fatal case induced by Trypanosoma congolense in France after returning from Abidjan raises the question of an imported secondary focus. The clinical case was developed and the causative agent was confirmed by microscopy and PCR methods. The three necessary pillars to create a secondary potential focus are present: the parasite introduction in a new territory, the presence and the propagation vectors, and their proximity with sensitive species.

International audience; In January 2016, a large-scale outbreak of acute gastroenteritis was reported among French armed forces deployed in the Central African Republic. Challenging investigations, conducted from France, made it possible to identify a norovirus genogroup II in both stool and food samples, confirming a norovirus foodborne disease outbreak. Infected food handler management is discussed.

Canine dirofilarioses are nematode infections caused by two species of the genus Dirofilaria: D. immitis and D. repens. We describe here an outbreak of D. immitis and D. repens infection in military working dogs (MWDs) housed in a kennel in the Indre department (centre of France). Out of a total of 17 dogs, 6 (35.2%) tested positive for D. immitis, D. repens or both parasites. Infested dogs were treated and prophylactic measures were implemented for the entire kennel staff. To our knowledge, this is the first documented description of an outbreak of canine cardiopulmonary dirofilariasis in the center of France, unlike in the south of this country, where D. immitis and D. repens dirofilariasis are enzootic. In France, as mosquito vectors expand their territory and new non-native vectors are introduced, it is likely that the distribution area of these two diseases of domestic and wild carnivores will be wider and underestimated.Un foyer de dirofilariose canine cardiaque et sous-cutanée dans un chenil du centre de la France.Les dirofilarioses canines sont des infections à nématodes causée par deux espèces du genre Dirofilaria, D. immitis et D. repens. Nous décrivons ici un foyer d’infection à D. immitis et D. repens chez des chiens militaires hébergés dans un chenil dans le département de l’Indre (centre de la France). Sur un total de 17 chiens, 6 (35,2 %) ont été testés positifs pour D. immitis, pour D. repens ou pour les deux parasites. Les chiens infestés ont été traités et des mesures prophylactiques ont été mises en place pour tout le personnel du chenil. À notre connaissance, il s’agit de la première description documentée d’un foyer de dirofilariose cardiopulmonaire canine dans le centre de la France, contrairement au sud du pays, où les dirofilarioses à D. immitis et D. repens sont enzootiques. En France, à mesure que les moustiques vecteurs élargissent leur territoire et que de nouveaux vecteurs non indigènes sont introduits, il est probable que la zone de distribution de ces deux maladies des carnivores domestiques et sauvages sera plus étendue et sous-estimée.

In French Guiana, cutaneous leishmaniasis is highly endemic, whereas no autochthonous case of visceral leishmaniasis have been reported so far. However, due to its proximity to Brazil which is highly endemic for visceral leishmaniasis, and the high transboundary population flow, an epidemiological challenge could arise at any time. As an overseas department and region and the largest outermost region of the European Union, epidemiological surveillance of visceral leishmaniasis is of great importance. Our study aimed to investigate the presence of Leishmania spp. in domestic (dogs) and sylvatic (bats) animals from French Guiana. Over the 2008–2018 period, samples from 349 animals were collected. They included blood from 179 autochthonous dogs and 59 bats, spleen samples from 33 bats and, blood from 78 military working dogs (MWD) collected before their departure from continental France and at the end of their four-month stay in French Guiana. Samples were screened using real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays targeting Leishmania DNA followed by sequencing of 18S rRNA, kDNA and ITS2 genes. L. infantum was detected in 2.3% (8/349) of animals with 1.7% (3/179) of autochthonous dogs, 5.1% (4/78) of MWD returning from French Guiana, whereas they were negative before their departure. One of them dates back to 2012. All these dogs were positive for serological tests. In addition, L. infantum DNA was detectable in one bat spleen sample, belonging to Carollia perspicillata species. We report here for the first time an infection with L. infantum in dogs and bat from French Guiana. Our results suggest the existence of potential reservoir and transmission cycle for visceral leishmaniasis, at least since 2012, which was unknown in this territory until now. Further studies are needed to determine how these animals were infected and which vectors are involved in the transmission in this area., Author summary Leishmaniasis is endemic in French Guiana under its cutaneous form where Leishmania guyanensis is the principle parasite species. Visceral leishmaniasis is much more severe, although well known in neighbouring countries (Brazil, Suriname, Venezuela), it has not been known in French Guiana until now. Our study presents the result of a ten-year surveillance of Leishmania spp. infections in dogs and bats from French Guiana. We analyzed 92 bats from French Guiana 179 local dogs and 78 additional French military working dogs (MWD), which spent a short stay in this territory. Globally, we found 2.3% (8/343) of Leishmania infected animals. L. infantum infection was detected in 1.7% (3/179) of autochthonous dogs and 5.1% (4/78) of MWD. One of them dates back to 2012, the others were in 2016 and 2018. Low infection rate was detected in bats, only one specimen among 92 being infected (1.1%) and belonging to Carollia perspicillata species. We conclude that L. infantum has been circulating in French Guiana since at least 2012. Dogs and bats could therefore be among the potential reservoirs. Further investigations on potential additional reservoirs among domestic and wild animals, as well as identification of vectors, are required.

In French Guiana, canine heartworm disease is well known, but the diversity of filarial parasites of dogs remains largely unknown. A total of 98 canine blood samples from Cayenne and Kourou were assessed by a blood wet mount preparation, heartworm antigen test and molecular exploration of filarioid and Wolbachia DNAs, followed by a multiplex species-specific qPCR&rsquo, s identification and a subsequent sequencing analysis. Thereafter, a phylogeny based on maximum likelihood was carried out to facilitate specific identification. Five dogs were microfilaremic. Heartworm antigens were detected in 15 (15.3%) dogs. Of these, six (6.1%) were considered as occult infections as neither microfilariae nor Dirofilaria immitis DNA were detected. The 11 (11.2%) D. immitis isolates corresponded to a low virulent strain. Six of the D. immitis isolates were positive for Wolbachia endosymbionts of D. immitis belonging to the clade C DNA. Acanthocheilonema reconditum DNA was detected in 3 (3.1%) samples. Of these latter, one was found co-infected with the Brugia sp. genotype and the DNA of the clade D of the Wolbachia endosymbiont of Brugia species. This latter was also detected in two filarioid DNA-free samples. Finally, two samples were positive for Cercopithifilaria bainae genotype, which is distinct from those identified in Europe. The present study highlights the urgent need to implement chemoprophylaxis associated with anti-Wolbachia drugs to control these potential zoonoses.

International audience; A Q fever epidemic occurred in 2013 in a small military residential area in Cayenne, French Guiana. A retrospective cohort study was conducted to identify Q fever risk factors. Confirmed acute Q fever case was defined as positive serology (IgM >= 50 and phase II IgG >= 200) and/or positive qPCR on serum or blood. In addition, wild mammals were captured at the study site and tested by serology and real-time PCR performed on blood, vaginal swabs and ticks. The attack rate was 20 percent (11/54). All the cases were symptomatic with fever > 38.5 degrees C and community-acquired pneumonia for four cases. Log binomial multivariate models identified two independent risk factors associated with Q fever: to clean the house (RRa = 7.5 CI95% [1.03-55.3]) and to carry a three-toed sloth in arms (RRa = 2.6 CI95% [1.1-5.8]). Eighteen marsupial individuals were captured, all PCRs were negative but 17% (3/18) had a positive serology. Another study conducted after the epidemic found only one (1/4) three-tooth sloth (Bradypus tridactylus) with feces highly infectious for C. burnetii MST17. The same strain C. burnetii genotype 17 has been laboratory-confirmed in this mammal and in human cases. These results support the implication of three-toed-sloth in this epidemic. Human contamination mainly occurs through inhalation of infectious aerosols as suggested by high relative risk associated with house cleaning activities and pulmonary forms of the disease, and through direct contact with three- toed-sloth. Positive serological results among marsupials confirm wildlife exposure and suggest a more complex sylvatic transmission cycle among wild mammals.

International audience; In Africa, infection with West Nile virus (WNV) is frequent but almost always asymptomatic in humans and equids. The aim of this study was to identify whether any other domestic animal living in the same enzootic locality may be the sentinel of WNV circulation. In northwest Senegal, blood samples were collected from 283 adult domestic animals (136 sheep, 64 horses, 29 donkeys, 29 goats, 14 cattle, and 11 dogs), in three localities near Keur Momar Sarr. Each serum was tested for WNV immunoglobulin G using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The prevalence among donkeys, horses, dogs, goats, cattle, and sheep was 86.2%, 68.7%, 27.3%, 6.9%, 0%, and 0%, respectively. This survey confirms that equids and dogs could be the best sentinel animals for surveillance of WNV. The ruminants do not play a role in WNV epidemiology.

Background: Toscana virus (TOSV) is an arbovirus belonging to the Bunyaviridae, a family of negative-stranded, enveloped RNA viruses. The virus can be transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected female sand fly of the genus Phlebotomus. Infections are usually asymptomatic but the virus is known to cause aseptic meningitis and/or meningo-encephalitis in the Mediterranean countries. Dogs are good sentinels for detection of viral circulation and are more easily accessible than wild animals.Findings: In 2013 and 2014, we collected sera from 231 adult dogs living in 26 counties in two departments in Corsica, a French island in the Mediterranean. The virus microneutralization-based seroprevalence assay revealed a seropositivity of 3.9 % dogs on the eastern coast of Corsica.Conclusions: Our study confirms the circulation of TOSV in Corsica. Accordingly, in geographical areas where dogs possess TOSV neutralizing antibodies, direct and indirect TOSV diagnosis should be implemented in patients presenting with febrile illnesses and central nervous system infections such as meningitis and encephalitis.

International audience; BackgroundCanine leishmaniosis (CanL) is enzootic in southeastern France, and military working dogs (MWD) posted in this area are highly exposed. To assess the efficiency of prevention, we performed a serological and clinical follow-up of 80 MWD in the Var and Corsica regions during the 20-year period from 1993 to 2012. The systematic and specific prevention of CanL using a deltamethrin-impregnated collar (DMC) was implemented in 2002.FindingsOut of 80 dogs tested annually, the cumulative serological and clinical incidence was 42.5% (34/80) and 21.2% (17/80) respectively, during the first period, and these numbers decreased to 6.2% (5/80) and 2.5% (2/80) during the second period (p < 0.00001). Considering the incidence of serology since 2002, the CanL risk has been reduced by 85.2% and the level of protection of MWD reached 93.8%. Dogs without collars had a 10.4-fold greater chance of becoming infected than protected dogs. Although other ecological factors might have influenced the epidemiology of CanL, DMC usage was the main factor affecting dog exposure to CanL.ConclusionsThe prevention strategy based on DMC proved highly efficient in our population of MWD, as it effectively controlled the disease. This result is also of interest to public health, as dogs are reservoirs for Leishmania infantum.