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The Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) has been mapping the surface temperatures of the Moon since 5 July 2009. Diviner has since collected over 500 billion radiometric measurements with excellent spatial and local time coverage. However, the most recently published high-resolution Diviner global maps only use data collected from 2009 to 2016. In this work, we compile ∼13 years of Diviner data to produce improved global maps of nighttime brightness temperature, bolometric temperature, regolith temperature, and rock abundance (RA). Errors in Diviner's pointing have been corrected and past effective field of view modeling has been optimized to improve data georeferencing without spatial interpolation. We estimate an effective resolution of ∼330 m longitudinally and ∼700 m latitudinally at the equator, which corresponds to an improvement of ∼3.5× longitudinally and ∼1.3× latitudinally. In addition, we develop a thermal model that accounts for indirect scattering and emission from surrounding topography. The resulting temperature anomaly maps better highlight variations in temperature caused by thermophysical properties by removing most topographic effects. These improvements allow for the identification of smaller and fainter thermal features than was previously possible. The improved effective resolution of Diviner maps allows for excellent spatial correlation with other high-resolution data sets. To demonstrate this, we compare Diviner RA to a manual survey of boulders in the Apollo 17 landing site region. We show that Diviner RA correlates well with the areal fraction of rocks larger than ∼1–2 m in diameter visible in LRO Camera imagery.

Radar observation is an effective way to understand subsurface structures in terms of the dielectric constant, whose controlling factors include chemical composition, packing density, and water/ice content. Recently, laboratory measurements have shown that the dielectric constant of lunar regolith simulants also depends on the temperature, which has never been evaluated from remote sensing data. In this study, we estimated the dielectric constant from the Miniature Radio Frequency (Mini-RF) data on a lunar crater floor in the north polar region at two different local times (i.e., different surface temperatures). We calculated the dielectric constant using the inversion method and obtained the bolometric surface temperature from the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (Diviner) data. The histograms of the estimated dielectric constant values are different between the two local times. This could be interpreted as a result of the temperature dependence of the dielectric constant, while further evaluation of the influence of topography on the incidence angle and small surface roughness is needed. Nevertheless, our result suggests that the temperature dependence of the dielectric constant should be considered when interpreting S-band radar observations of the Moon and other celestial bodies with large surface temperature differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of modern irrigation systems and monitoring of soil water status can help improve crop performance and water use efficiency. The influence of different irrigation treatments on soil water content dynamics and olive oil yield was studied over two growing seasons using a surface drip irrigation system in an olive grove in northern Mediterranean climate. Irrigation treatments included optimal irrigation, sustained deficit irrigation (33 % of optimal irrigation), and rainfed treatment. Based on the water applied, we calculated the percentage of replenished estimated evapotranspiration (ETc*) for each treatment using the Penman-Monteith method. Soil water content dynamics were monitored with capacitive probes at five depths (10 to 50 cm). The increase in soil water content at a depth of 30 to 50 cm, which was only achieved with optimal irrigation, resulted in a significantly higher olive oil yield. In contrast, deficit irrigation, despite the addition of water, did not lead to an increase in soil water in the layers below 30 cm, so that the yield was equal to that of rainfed treatment. In irrigated olive groves, it is beneficial to monitor the water content of the soil at several depths to ensure that a sufficient amount of water has been applied.

The microphysical structure of the lunar regolith provides information on the geologic history of the Moon. We used remote sensing measurements of thermal emission and a thermophysical model to determine the microphysical properties of the lunar regolith. We expand upon previous investigations by developing a microphysical thermal model, which more directly simulates regolith properties, such as grain size and volume filling factor. The modeled temperatures are matched with surface temperatures measured by the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment on board the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. The maria and highlands are investigated separately and characterized in the model by a difference in albedo and grain density. We find similar regolith temperatures for both terrains, which can be well described by similar volume filling factor profiles and mean grain sizes obtained from returned Apollo samples. We also investigate a significantly lower thermal conductivity for highlands, which formally also gives a very good solution, but in a parameter range that is well outside the Apollo data. We then study the latitudinal dependence of regolith properties up to ±80° latitude. When assuming constant regolith properties, we find that a variation of the solar incidence‐dependent albedo can reduce the initially observed latitudinal gradient between model and Diviner measurements significantly. A better match between measurements and model can be achieved by a variation in intrinsic regolith properties with a decrease in bulk density with increasing latitude. We find that a variation in grain size alone cannot explain the Diviner measurements at higher latitudes. Plain Language Summary: The Moon is covered by a layer of fine grained material called regolith. To extract information about the regolith, such as grain size or stratification, we used data from the Diviner instrument on board the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. Diviner measures the surface temperature of the regolith for each location on the Moon and all times during day and night. To derive regolith properties, we developed a model and varied its model parameters until the simulated surface temperatures matched the measured ones. We applied the model up to a latitude of 80° and find as the best solution a decrease in regolith packing density with increasing latitude. We also find that a variation of regolith grain size alone cannot explain the measurements. These predictions are valuable for planning future missions targeting higher latitudes and can be compared with future in situ measurements and returned samples. However, the fraction of sunlight that actually heats the regolith is quite unknown, especially at high latitudes. A variation of this fraction can explain the measured surface temperatures reasonably well even without a variation of the regolith properties with latitude. Key Points: We developed a microphysical thermal model accounting for regolith grain size and volume filling factorThe best match between model and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter/Diviner data was achieved with a decrease in bulk density between 30° and 80° latitudeWe also found a reasonable agreement between observed and modeled surface temperatures when varying the solar incidence dependent albedo [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The distribution of impact craters on the ejecta of Giordano Bruno, a recent (

Radar observation is an effective way to understand subsurface structures in terms of the dielectric constant, whose controlling factors include chemical composition, packing density, and water/ice content. Recently, laboratory measurements have shown that the dielectric constant of lunar regolith simulants also depends on the temperature, which has never been evaluated from remote sensing data. In this study, we estimated the dielectric constant from the Miniature Radio Frequency (Mini-RF) data on a lunar crater floor in the north polar region at two different local times (i.e., different surface temperatures). We calculated the dielectric constant using the inversion method and obtained the bolometric surface temperature from the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (Diviner) data. The histograms of the estimated dielectric constant values are different between the two local times. This could be interpreted as a result of the temperature dependence of the dielectric constant, while further evaluation of the influence of topography on the incidence angle and small surface roughness is needed. Nevertheless, our result suggests that the temperature dependence of the dielectric constant should be considered when interpreting S-band radar observations of the Moon and other celestial bodies with large surface temperature differences.

This study illustrates the significance of water for the Murle people of South Sudan. Drawing from ethnographic fieldwork, we analyse traditional practices and metaphorical expressions in the spontaneous speech of male members of the laŋo age-set. We show that the spoken language embodies metaphorical expressions of the Murle cattle- and land-based identity and demonstrate how Indigenous knowledge manifests itself in water-related expressions and in traditional practices related to water. In these traditional practices water is used to foster peace, convey blessings, purify, and enhance fertility. The study also offers a new perspective on the role and agency of women in Murle age-sets, highlighting the role of a female diviner of the laŋo age-set. Female traditional experts, such as dole ci lilu, draw moral authority from the Murle tradition which regards women as the mothers of all society, and use spiritual power to promote peace and build relationships through advice. In turn, male chiefs performing traditional rituals deal with the ill effects of conflict, ensuring unity in the society and continuity of the tradition. The results indicate a complementary approach among the male and female experts of Murle tradition (kɛranɛ). This gendered study supplies a nuanced understanding of the transformative potential that Murle spirituality and traditional water-related practices can have among young men and women in an age-set society.

The internal heat flow related to the Moon’s composition, interior structure, and evolution history is not well-constrained and understood on a global scale. Up to now, only two in situ heat flow experiments, Apollo 15 and 17 were deployed nearly 50 years ago. The measured high values of heat flow might be influenced by lateral heat at highland/mare boundaries and enhanced by heat production from radioactive elements enriched unit, and may also be disturbed by astronauts’ activities. In this study, we proposed a new method to retrieve heat flows at two permanently shadowed craters, Haworth and Shoemaker of the Moon’s south pole, from Chang’E-2 microwave radiometer data and Diviner observations. Our results show that the average heat flow is 4.9 ± 0.2 mW/m2. This provides a constraint for the bulk concentration of Thorium within the lunar south polar crust 656 ± 54 ppb, which helps us understand the Moon’s thermal evolution and differentiation.

Lunar collapse pits may provide access to subsurface lava tubes of unknown extent. We present Diviner Lunar Radiometer measurements showing that the Mare Tranquillitatis and Mare Ingenii pits exhibit elevated thermal emission during the night, ∼100 K warmer than the surrounding surface. Using these data, along with computational thermophysical models, we characterize the thermal environment inside pits and potential caves. Near the equator, peak day‐time temperatures on regolith‐covered pit floors can potentially reach >420 K, whereas temperatures beyond the opening in permanent shadow would maintain a nearly constant temperature of ∼290 K, similar to that of a blackbody cavity in radiative equilibrium. Thermal IR measurements such as those of Diviner can readily detect pit thermal signatures but would be insensitive to the existence of caves they may host, as the latter would only induce a 0.1 K increase to night‐time temperatures of the overlying surface. Plain Language Summary: Since the discovery of pits on the Moon by JAXA's SELENE spacecraft in 2009, there has been interest in whether they provide access to caves that could be explored by rovers and astronauts. These features are likely created by the ceiling of a lava tube (or more generally, cave) collapsing. Using data from the Diviner instrument aboard the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, which has been continuously measuring the temperature of the lunar surface for over 11 years, we thoroughly characterized the environment of one prominent pit. Located in Mare Tranquillitatis, the pit's thermal environment is more hospitable compared to anywhere else on the Moon, with temperatures varying minimally around a comfortable 17°C (or 63° F) wherever the Sun does not shine directly. If a cave extends from a pit such as this, it too would maintain this comfortable temperature throughout its length, varying by less than 1°C over an entire lunar day. Although we cannot be completely certain of a cave's existence through remote observations, such features would open the door for future exploration and habitation on the Moon: they could provide shelter from dramatic temperature variations present elsewhere on the lunar surface. Key Points: Lunar pits stay warmer than the surface during the night, with the floor maintaining temperatures >230 K according to computational modelsCaves stemming from lunar pits would behave like blackbody cavities at ∼290 K and have nearly invariable temperatures far from the openingLunar caves would provide a temperate, stable, and safe thermal environment for long term exploration and habitation of the Moon [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Japanese meteorological satellite Himawari-8 has captured the Earth's atmosphere and stars, planets, and the Moon in its field of view, enabling us to capture their spectroscopy with 16 bands from visible to mid-infrared wavelengths. The nine infrared bands in the Advanced Himawari Imager (AHI) onboard Himawari-8 are unique in spaceborne observations and are potentially useful for lunar science. In addition, infrared bands of AHI cover wavelengths similar to those of other interplanetary instruments and thus are useful for calibrations. However, infrared AHI data have not yet been investigated in planetary science. To confirm the utility of AHI for planetary science, we develop a procedure to retrieve the lunar infrared spectrum and compare it with thermal conduction simulations. Our analysis shows that lunar brightness temperature curves can be obtained in the morning, evening, and nighttime for all nine bands. Particularly at 8.5 μm, they show a good agreement with previous observations by the Diviner radiometer onboard NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. As pointed out previously, the brightness temperatures differ between the bands, indicating temperature mixing within a pixel. Our simulation suggests that surface roughness as steep as those measured at the Apollo landing sites significantly contributes to the observed brightness temperature differences in the morning and evening; however, nighttime brightness temperatures are greatly affected by rocks with higher thermal inertia than the regolith. The rock abundances are estimated to be 0.18–0.48% and 6.1–10.3% at the equator and within Tycho crater, respectively. Our estimations from AHI data are consistent with those of Diviner. These results support the idea that AHI potentially serves as a space telescope for future lunar and planetary sciences, for example, for constraining water content on the lunar surface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Through the figure of Bursuram, this article deals with the status, role and category of ritual specialists, in particular among the musicians of the Ganda caste in the Bastar region of Middle India. These musicians play for weddings and for possession rituals, and are often diviner, healer and medium as well. They live, not on their ritual skills, but on agriculture and daily labor made of varied heavy works. These religious activities which they carry out somehow as a part-time job, both out of devotion, out of social duty, as well as for fear of the gods and for pleasure, make them specialists of the invisible world. This article describes the multiplicity of their roles and identities, showing how they switch constantly and almost daily from one activity to another. While describing the relationship between music and possession in what is nothing else than a local form of Hinduism, it highlights the transitions, shifts, transformations and fluidity that equally characterize the way of life of these officiants, their cosmology and the entities that constitute it, starting with the shawm, a god-instrument with a variable identity. It also underlines the paradox between, on the one hand, the low status and impurity conferred on musicians, and, on the other hand, the central role and ritual power entrusted to them through music. Indeed, to perform the music of the gods comes down to interpreting possession by guessing who is Who, and to judging its authenticity. Located at the (sound) meeting point between the visible and the invisible, the musician passes – himself or the others – from one world to another. Whether as a musician or as a medium, he maintains this close link between men and the invisible world, making the gods and ancestors suddenly audible and visible.

Microwave emission is influenced by regolith thermophysical properties that can reveal the geological evolution of the Moon. Lunar near-surface microwave emission has been systematically investigated by the microwave radiometer (MRM) onboard Chinese Chang’E-2 (CE-2) lunar satellite. However, recent work showed that global calibration issues were causing discrepancies between CE-2 observations and theoretical simulations at 3.0- and 7.8-GHz channels, which influences data interpretations and applications. In this study, we use a new method to improve thermal models by employing the bolometric brightness temperature and thermophysical property of subsurface structure derived from high quality and repeated coverage Diviner data. The derived subsurface temperatures make it possible for us to improve the accuracy of microwave brightness temperature ($T_{B}$) simulation within 70°N/S latitudes. We evaluate the MRM data quantitatively by comparing the global $T_{B}$ between modeled values and CE-2 observations (i.e., offset values) at different local times (LTs) and latitudes. The results show that offset values of the two channels vary significantly with LT, especially near 06:00 and 18:00. However, the 7.8-GHz channel presents greater (~12k in average) calibration uncertainties than the 3.0-GHz channel. In addition, the offset of both the two channels becomes complex at high latitudes but presents an obvious north–south asymmetry. Finally, we modify the MRM data according to different offsets at different LTs and latitudes. The modified global $T_{B}$ maps provide us a new view to characterize the lunar near-surface thermal environment, especially for low- $T_{B}$ spots that are related to the elevated rock abundance and crater degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water ice is expected to be trapped in permanently cold regions near the lunar poles. Other ices ("super‐volatiles") are trapped at lower temperatures, close to the lowest temperatures measured within the lunar permanently shadowed regions (PSRs). Here, the thermal stability of solid carbon dioxide in the south polar region is determined by analysis of 11 years of temperature measurements by Diviner, a radiometer onboard the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. Sublimation rates averaged over a draconic year are far lower than peak sublimation rates. Small spatially contiguous pockets of CO2 ice stability are found in the craters Amundsen, Haworth, de Gerlache, and others, over a cumulative area of roughly 200 km2. The LCROSS probe impacted one of those pockets and released CO2, serving as validation of the thermal stability calculations. Future surface missions can utilize this highly localized resource for the production of fuel, steel, and biological materials. Plain Language Summary: Carbon‐bearing species would be essential for sustained robotic or human presence on the Moon, for use in rocket fuel and biological materials. Various volatiles can be cold‐trapped in permanently shadowed craters near the lunar poles. The existence of carbon dioxide cold traps has previously been surmised, but the required temperatures are near the lowest surface temperatures that have been reliably measured. Extensive and improved analysis of 11 years of orbital surface temperature measurements establishes the existence of carbon dioxide cold traps on the Moon, which potentially host high concentrations of solid carbon dioxide. Large CO2 cold traps are rare, however, and the geographic concentration of the resource will have policy implications. Key Points: Time‐dependent sublimation rates for CO2 are calculated based on 11 years of Diviner temperature measurementsExtensive data analysis establishes the existence of carbon dioxide cold traps in the south polar region of the MoonSolid carbon dioxide is expected to be highly localized [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although some of the coldest surface temperatures in the entire Solar System are found near the poles of our own Moon, the thermophysical properties of lunar regolith at these ultracold temperatures (i.e., below ∼150 K) are not well understood. Standard lunar thermal models generally match the surface temperatures observed by global orbital remote sensing data but are inconsistent with infrared data collected from ultracold polar terrain. We build upon previous theoretical work on the low‐temperature physics of lunar regolith to introduce a global thermal conductivity model consistent with the temperature trends observed by the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (Diviner). This updated thermophysical model primarily affects nighttime surface temperatures, subsurface temperatures at high latitudes, and permanently shadowed regions (PSRs). An additional outcome of this thermophysical model is the ability to accommodate the surface temperature trends observed by Diviner both in warm low latitudes and cold high latitudes. Subsurface temperatures in near‐polar craters are ∼5–10 K warmer than previous thermal models, and cooler nighttime surface temperatures are observed globally. Model results of PSRs reveal larger surface temperature amplitudes (as observed by Diviner) and steeper geothermal gradients. A comprehensive understanding of lunar regolith's low‐temperature thermal behavior is an essential step in modeling the potential location and quantity of cold trapped volatiles in the lunar south pole. Here, we hope to provide theoretical support and motivation for more complete low‐temperature thermal conductivity laboratory measurements. Plain Language Summary: A theory for describing the low‐temperature thermal properties of lunar soil is developed and applied to the top outer layer of the Moon. We compare model results with global surface temperature data collected by the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (Diviner) onboard the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO). The new thermal model differs from previous standard models in several ways. The model produces cooler nighttime surface temperatures at low and high latitudes, and we observe warmer subsurface temperatures with increasing latitude. Additionally, the updated model provides larger surface temperature amplitudes in polar terrain, specifically in shadowed near‐polar craters. Overall, a novel outcome of this new model is the ability to accommodate surface temperature trends observed by Diviner both at low and high latitudes, and the ability to predict warmer subsurface temperatures in very cold polar regions. By updating the low‐temperature thermal properties of lunar soil, we hope to better understand the stability of important organic volatiles, such as water ice, in the polar regions of the Moon. Key Points: We develop a low‐temperature thermal conductivity model of lunar regolith that agrees with in situ and orbital remote sensing dataA temperature‐dependent solid conduction term accommodates the large surface temperature amplitudes observed in low‐temperature regionsAverage subsurface temperatures in near‐polar terrain may be ∼5–10 K warmer than previous thermal model calculations [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The lunar surface temperature (LST) derived from thermal infrared (TIR) measurements can aid in understanding the physical properties of the lunar surface. The Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (herein, Diviner) sensor provides global lunar surface observation in seven TIR channels. However, its retrieval of LST constantly uses a single emissivity value (i.e., 0.95) by ignoring the spatial variation of lunar surface, thereby reducing the accuracy of temperature and day–night temperature difference. To overcome this problem, this study developed a physical method called temperature–emissivity separation (TES) algorithm to retrieve LST and lunar surface emissivity from the daytime observation in three Christiansen Feature (CF) channels (7.55–8.05, 8.10–8.40, and 8.38–8.60 μm) of the Diviner, and then used the emissivity from daytime observation to inverse LST at nighttime observation. Findings showed that the TES algorithm could retrieve LST and emissivity with an error of less than 0.8 K and 0.008, respectively. However, observation noise significantly affected the retrieval accuracy, particularly for the low‐temperature pixels; moreover, high retrieval accuracy requires a surface temperature higher than 240 K. The new algorithm was applied to obtain the daytime and nighttime LST and emissivity from the Diviner images. Results showed that the LST retrieved from the algorithm differed approximately 3.9 K from that calculated from a single emissivity 0.95. Finally, an example of global surface temperature and emissivity were obtained. Consequently, the CF pixels were found to distribute in the latitude range from −60° to 60°; however, they did not have a large distribution in high‐latitude and near‐polar regions.

The lunar surface temperature (LST) derived from thermal infrared (TIR) measurements can aid in understanding the physical properties of the lunar surface. The Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (herein, Diviner) sensor provides global lunar surface observation in seven TIR channels. However, its retrieval of LST constantly uses a single emissivity value (i.e., 0.95) by ignoring the spatial variation of lunar surface, thereby reducing the accuracy of temperature and day–night temperature difference. To overcome this problem, this study developed a physical method called temperature–emissivity separation (TES) algorithm to retrieve LST and lunar surface emissivity from the daytime observation in three Christiansen Feature (CF) channels (7.55–8.05, 8.10–8.40, and 8.38–8.60 μm) of the Diviner, and then used the emissivity from daytime observation to inverse LST at nighttime observation. Findings showed that the TES algorithm could retrieve LST and emissivity with an error of less than 0.8 K and 0.008, respectively. However, observation noise significantly affected the retrieval accuracy, particularly for the low‐temperature pixels; moreover, high retrieval accuracy requires a surface temperature higher than 240 K. The new algorithm was applied to obtain the daytime and nighttime LST and emissivity from the Diviner images. Results showed that the LST retrieved from the algorithm differed approximately 3.9 K from that calculated from a single emissivity 0.95. Finally, an example of global surface temperature and emissivity were obtained. Consequently, the CF pixels were found to distribute in the latitude range from −60° to 60°; however, they did not have a large distribution in high‐latitude and near‐polar regions. Key Points: A physical algorithm was proposed to estimate lunar surface temperature and emissivity from Diviner daytime and nighttime observationsLunar surface temperature retrieved from the new algorithm differed 3.9 K from that calculated from a fixed emissivity 0.95Global lunar Christiansen Feature pixels were identified and found to mainly distribute in the latitude range from −60° to 60° [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Basin‐forming impacts expose material from deep within the interior of the Moon. Given the number of lunar basins, one would expect to find samples of the lunar mantle among those returned by the Apollo or Luna missions or within the lunar meteorite collection. However, only a few candidate mantle samples have been identified. Some remotely detected locations have been postulated to contain mantle‐derived material, but none are mineralogically consistent upon study with multiple techniques. To locate potential remnants of the lunar mantle, we searched for early‐crystallizing minerals using data from the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) and the Diviner Lunar Radiometer (Diviner). While the lunar crust is largely composed of plagioclase, the mantle should contain almost none. M3 spectra were used to identify massifs bearing mafic minerals and Diviner was used to constrain the relative abundance of plagioclase. Of the sites analyzed, only Mons Wolff was found to potentially contain mantle material. Plain Language Summary: During the Moon's early development, minerals such as olivine and pyroxene would have crystallized first, sinking toward the lunar interior and becoming the primary components of the mantle. After approximately 70–80% of the magma ocean solidified, plagioclase began to crystallize and floated on the iron‐rich residual melt. The lunar highland crust is characterized by an abundance of plagioclase, whereas samples of the mantle should contain very little plagioclase. Considering the size and number of large impact basins on the Moon, one would expect that some of these dug through the lunar crust, exposing lunar mantle. However, very few candidates for mantle material have been identified among the lunar samples on Earth. This study uses near‐infrared data from the Moon Mineralogy Mapper to identify sites on the surface that contain early‐crystallizing minerals (olivine and pyroxene), which are indicative of mantle material. These sites were then analyzed using data from the Diviner Lunar Radiometer, which is able to constrain the abundance of these minerals relative to the amount of plagioclase present. Based on our analysis, the Imbrium Basin contains only one instance of rocks that are mineralogically consistent with being sourced from the mantle. Key Points: Lunar rocks exhibiting mafic signatures in the near infrared are inconsistent with ultramafic compositions when viewed in the mid‐infraredCombining data from the Moon Mineralogy Mapper and Diviner Lunar Radiometer enabled bulk and mafic mineralogy to be robustly interpretedA near‐ and mid‐infrared survey of the inner and outer rings of Imbrium Basin reveals only Mons Wolff as potential exposed mantle [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We used the bolometric brightness temperatures (TBol) derived from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiters Diviner Lunar Radiometer (Diviner) as an upper boundary condition in our thermal model. We then calculated temperature profiles at any local time based on our improved thermal model at low to middle latitudes (70° N/S). Based on the temperature profiles, we modeled the midnight brightness temperature at 19.35 (TB19) and 37 GHz (TB37). Comparing to the Chang'E‐1 and Chang'E‐2 (CE‐1/2) observations, we found that CE‐1 showed a better data quality than that of CE‐2, especially for the TB37 data. Assuming that the issue with the CE‐2 data is caused by heat contamination of the cold‐reference antennas, we performed an empirical normalization of the CE‐2 microwave radiometer data near midnight following the approach of Hu et al. (2017). The results show that TB difference (modeled values minus modified TB) for 19.35 GHz is less than 3.40 K for ∼80% of the pixels. At 37 GHz, ∼67% of the pixels have TB difference less than 2.88 K. Additionally, we identified some areas of low microwave temperature in our modified TB maps. These low‐TB features can be characterized by two types: (1) low TB spots at fresh craters with high rock abundance and bright rays and (2) high‐Ti lunar mare surfaces with a low content of rock fragments. Investigating these low‐TB regions with the modified TB data can reveal more information about subsurface thermal regime and properties and help us better understand the evolution of regolith on the Moon. Plain Language Summary: We proposed a new method to simulate the microwave brightness temperature of the Moon using surface thermal constraints from Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Diviner data. We evaluated the Chang'E‐1/2 microwave radiometer data and adjusted the midnight observations to account for its calibration uncertainties. Our results provide better constraints on the thermal regime in the subsurface. Of particular interest is microwave cold regions, the presence of which can be related to thermophysical and compositional properties of the regolith in these locations. The modified Chang'E‐2 microwave data can also be applied to study the thermal evolution of the Moon. Key Points: A new method using Diviner data to constraint surface temperature is used in our thermal modelMicrowave brightness temperatures at midnight of middle to low latitudes are modeled from improved thermal modelHigh frequencies of Chang'E‐2 microwave radiometer data near midnight were modified, and brightness temperature maps are created [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mid‐infrared spectroscopic analysis of the Moon and other airless bodies requires a full accounting of spectral variation due to the unique thermal environment in airless body regoliths and the substantial differences between spectra acquired under airless body conditions and those measured in an ambient environment on Earth. Because there exists a thermal gradient within the upper hundreds of microns of lunar regolith, the data acquired by the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment are not isothermal with wavelength. While this complication has been previously identified, its effect on other known variables that contribute to spectral variation, such as particle size and porosity, have yet to be well characterized in the laboratory. Here we examine the effect of particle size on mid‐infrared spectra of silicates common to the Moon measured within a simulated lunar environment chamber. Under simulated lunar conditions, decreasing particle size is shown to enhance the spectral contrast of the Reststrahlen bands and transparency features, as well as shift the location of the Christiansen feature to longer wavelengths. This study shows that these variations are detectable at Diviner spectral resolution and emphasizes the need for simulated environment laboratory data sets, as well as hyperspectral mid‐infrared instruments on future missions to airless bodies. Plain Language Summary: When trying to determine the composition of a planetary surface, it is important to have a basis for comparison. Currently, infrared data acquired from missions to airless bodies, like the Moon and asteroids, are mostly compared to data measured under ambient terrestrial conditions, and the difference in measurement environment complicates analysis. In this work, we measure minerals of varying particle size in the laboratory under a simulated lunar environment to understand how this variable affects the data, and whether we can detect the variations with the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment. Acquiring infrared data under simulated lunar environment conditions will improve our interpretation of data not only from the Moon but also from other airless planetary bodies such as Mercury and asteroids. Key Points: Particle size is an important variable affecting the position of the Christiansen feature under a simulated lunar environmentParticle size variation is within the detectable limits of the Diviner Lunar Radiometer ExperimentFuture mid‐infrared missions will benefit from a simulated lunar environment spectral library [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objetivou-se, com este trabalho, realizar a calibração de três sondas capacitivas, visando a utilizá-las na definição de funções físico-hídricas e na análise da variação espacial e temporal do conteúdo (q) e do armazenamento de água, em um Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo, cultivado com três clones de palma forrageira, no Semiárido pernambucano. O estudo foi executado numa área experimental situada em Serra Talhada, PE. Para isso, foi realizada a calibração de três sondas capacitivas, usando-se dados de densidade aparente do solo, de umidade gravimétrica e de frequências relativas, em cinco condições de umidade do solo. Aplicou-se o método do perfil instantâneo, para determinação do fluxo vertical de água, e do potencial matricial de água no solo. Em seguida, analisou-se a variação espaço-temporal do q e do armazenamento de água no solo. As medidas de frequência relativa das sondas capacitivas apresentaram elevada relação com os dados de q (R2 > 0,87). A partir do método do perfil instantâneo, foi possível determinar as funções da condutividade hidráulica e do potencial total de água no solo, em relação ao q, com elevados coeficientes de determinação (R2 > 0,91). Não houve diferenças significativas do q entre os clones de palma forrageira.

In South Africa's KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Province, the isangoma (diviner) remains firmly entrenched at the apex of the hierarchy of African traditional medicine (ATM). This review article raises two questions. The first interrogates the essence of ubungoma (divination), while the second focuses on gendered notions in this line of work. The latter question probes four issues: why izangoma (plural for isangoma) are mostly women; whether these females possess disproportionate power as compared to their male counterparts; and whether such womenfolk possess their power by virtue of being female or izangoma per se. The fourth aspect addresses sexual orientation of ubungoma. Plausible explanations for these questions were gleaned from a scanty - albeit fascinating information - collated through a literature search and personal communication. Female izangoma were found to have attributes that outclass their male counterparts. This review also interrogates the manner in which African beliefs have been represented in literature. Western epistemologies have tended to misrepresent the realm of African beliefs by dismissing them as mere superstition. Alternatively, they create boundaries of intellectual segregation by treating African beliefs as cognitive false consciousness. In contemporary South Africa this form of misrepresentation has not deterred Africans from seeking the services of izangoma.

Mapping of lunar nighttime surface temperatures has revealed anomalously low nighttime temperatures around recently formed impact craters on the Moon. The thermophysically distinct "cold spots" provide a way of identifying the most recently formed impact craters. Over 2,000 cold spot source craters were measured with diameters ranging from 43 m to 2.3 km. Comparison of the crater size‐frequency distribution with crater chronology models and crater counts of superposed craters on the ejecta of the largest cold spot craters constrains the retention time of the cold spots to no more than ~0.5–1.0 Myr with smaller cold spots possibly retained for only few hundred kyr. This would suggest a relatively rapid impact gardening rate with regolith overturn depths exceeding ~5 cm over this time scale. We observe a longitudinal heterogeneity in the cold spot distribution that reflects the Moon's synchronous rotation with a higher density of cold spots at the apex of motion. The magnitude of the asymmetry indicates the craters formed from a population of objects with low mean encounter velocities ~8.4 km/s. The larger cold spots (D > 800 m) do not follow this trend, and are concentrated on the trailing farside. This could result from a shorter retention time for larger cold spots on the leading hemisphere due to the greater number of smaller, superposed impacts. Alternatively, the abundance of large cold spots on the trailing farside resulted from a swarm of 100‐m‐scale impactors striking the Moon within the last ~0.5 Myr. Plain Language Summary: Impact craters on the Moon modify the surfaces around them, resulting in patches of colder nighttime surface temperatures. These "cold spots" fade over time. Using the cold spots as markers to identify the most recent impacts that have occurred on the Moon, we measured the diameters of all the craters with cold spots. Comparing the population of these craters with the expected impact rate, we estimate that the cold spots fade over a few hundred thousand years. The cold spots are also concentrated on the western hemisphere due to the Moon's synchronous rotation where the western half of the Moon always faces toward the direction of motion of the Moon orbiting the Earth. This suggests that a relatively slow population of objects impacted the Moon in the last few hundred thousand years. The largest cold spots, however, are concentrated on the trailing hemisphere. This could result either from more small impacts on the leading hemisphere destroying larger cold spots and leaving a higher number of large cold spots on the trailing hemisphere, or a swarm of 100‐m‐sized objects colliding on the trailing side during this time period. Key Points: We measure diameters of craters associated with cold spots. Their size‐frequency distribution indicates cold spots survive a few hundred kyrThe distribution of cold spots reflects the Moon's synchronous rotation with cold spots focused on the apex of motionThe largest cold spots with source craters larger than 800 m are concentrated on the trailing side of the moon [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An approach is presented to efficiently produce high quality gridded data records from the large, global point-based dataset returned by the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment aboard NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. The need to minimize data volume and processing time in production of science-ready map products is increasingly important with the growth in data volume of planetary datasets. Diviner makes on average >1400 observations per second of radiance that is reflected and emitted from the lunar surface, using 189 detectors divided into 9 spectral channels. Data management and processing bottlenecks are amplified by modeling every observation as a probability distribution function over the field of view, which can increase the required processing time by 2–3 orders of magnitude. Geometric corrections, such as projection of data points onto a digital elevation model, are numerically intensive and therefore it is desirable to perform them only once. Our approach reduces bottlenecks through parallel binning and efficient storage of a pre-processed database of observations. Database construction is via subdivision of a geodesic icosahedral grid, with a spatial resolution that can be tailored to suit the field of view of the observing instrument. Global geodesic grids with high spatial resolution are normally impractically memory intensive. We therefore demonstrate a minimum storage and highly parallel method to bin very large numbers of data points onto such a grid. A database of the pre-processed and binned points is then used for production of mapped data products that is significantly faster than if unprocessed points were used. We explore quality controls in the production of gridded data records by conditional interpolation, allowed only where data density is sufficient. The resultant effects on the spatial continuity and uncertainty in maps of lunar brightness temperatures is illustrated. We identify four binning regimes based on trades between the spatial resolution of the grid, the size of the FOV and the on-target spacing of observations. Our approach may be applicable and beneficial for many existing and future point-based planetary datasets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We used infrared data from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment to globally map thermophysical properties of the Moon's regolith fines layer. Thermal conductivity varies from 7.4 × 10−4 W m−1 K−1 at the surface to 3.4 × 10−3 W m−1 K−1 at depths of ~1 m, given density values of 1,100 kg m−3 at the surface to 1,800 kg m−3 at 1 m depth. On average, the scale height of these profiles is ~7 cm, corresponding to a thermal inertia of 55 ± 2 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2 at 273 K, relevant to the diurnally active near‐surface layer, ~4–7 cm. The temperature dependence of thermal conductivity and heat capacity leads to an ~2 times diurnal variation in thermal inertia at the equator. On global scales, the regolith fines are remarkably uniform, implying rapid homogenization by impact gardening of this layer on timescales <1 Gyr. Regional‐ and local‐scale variations show prominent impact features <1 Gyr old, including higher thermal inertia (> 100 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2) in the interiors and ejecta of Copernican‐aged impact craters and lower thermal inertia (< 50 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2) within the lunar cold spots identified by Bandfield et al. (2014). Observed trends in ejecta thermal inertia provide a potential tool for age dating craters of previously unknown age, complementary to the approach suggested by Ghent et al. (2014). Several anomalous regions are identified in the global 128 pixels per degree maps presented here, including a high‐thermal inertia deposit near the antipode of Tycho crater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As ground truth to utilize the surface temperature measurements from the Diviner Lunar IR Radiometer and the subsurface thermal properties from the Apollo heat-flow probes, we create a forward model to predict brightness temperatures (Tbs) from lunar regolith media in the microwave (MW) spectrum. These models can be then directly compared with and matched to the data from the MW radiometers flown aboard the Chang'e 1 and 2 (CE-1 and CE-2) missions. Based on an MW radiative transfer model and the least-mean-square method, the effective surface reflectivity and absorption coefficient of the lunar regolith are retrieved from multichannel MW Tbs. The effective complex dielectric constant of the lunar regolith as a function of the depth at different frequency channels is derived. Meanwhile, we find that the maximum penetration depth of the MW radiation at the Apollo 15 site ranges from about 30 cm at 37.0 GHz to 230 cm at 3.0 GHz and from 30 cm at 37.0 GHz to 560 cm at 3.0 GHz in the equatorial highlands, which are much lower than the previous results that were simply derived from FeO and \TiO2 abundance. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]