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Objective: To conduct a meta-analytic review of psychosocial predictors of doping intention, doping use and inadvertent doping in sport and exercise settings., Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis., Data Sources: Scopus, Medline, Embase, PsychINFO, CINAHL Plus, ProQuest Dissertations/Theses and Open Grey., Eligibility Criteria: Studies (of any design) that measured the outcome variables of doping intention, doping use and/or inadvertent doping and at least one psychosocial determinant of those three variables., Results: We included studies from 25 experiments (N=13 586) and 186 observational samples (N=3 09 130). Experimental groups reported lower doping intentions ( g =-0.21, 95% CI (-0.31 to -0.12)) and doping use ( g =-0.08, 95% CI (-0.14 to -0.03), but not inadvertent doping ( g =-0.70, 95% CI (-1.95 to 0.55)), relative to comparators. For observational studies, protective factors were inversely associated with doping intentions ( z =-0.28, 95% CI -0.31 to -0.24), doping use ( z =-0.09, 95% CI -0.13 to to -0.05) and inadvertent doping ( z =-0.19, 95% CI -0.32 to -0.06). Risk factors were positively associated with doping intentions ( z =0.29, 95% CI 0.26 to 0.32) and use ( z =0.17, 95% CI 0.15 to 0.19), but not inadvertent doping ( z =0.08, 95% CI -0.06 to 0.22). Risk factors for both doping intentions and use included prodoping norms and attitudes, supplement use, body dissatisfaction and ill-being. Protective factors for both doping intentions and use included self-efficacy and positive morality., Conclusion: This study identified several protective and risk factors for doping intention and use that may be viable intervention targets for antidoping programmes. Protective factors were negatively associated with inadvertent doping; however, the empirical volume is limited to draw firm conclusions., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: Systematic doping programs like in the GDR were applied in adolescent competitive athletes to induce supramaximal athletic performance. The substances had adverse somatic and psychological effects. The psychological development of the young athletes was impaired and they suffered in adulthood from long-term effects and secondary diseases even years after the doping period., Method: The study compared three groups: competitive athletes with doping (I), competitive athletes without doping (II) and persons with no sports activities (III). Somatic and psychological diseases were analyzed to identify the adverse effects of doping in the most vulnerable phase of development in adolescence. Participants were asked to supply a patient history and completed a questionnaire with standardized psychological tests., Results: The doping cohort had a higher rate of somatic diseases, psychological disorders and social and professional difficulties. The differences were gender-specific with males more often having impaired liver function, depression, tumors and difficulties associated with the workplace . The doping group reported more emotional and physical neglect during childhood. They proved to be less optimistic but more pessimistic, to perceive less social support and to be more depressive. The study identified less extraversion and more neuroticism. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) occurred in a small number of participants in the doping group. Doping is associated with psychiatric variables. Predictors were the subscale identifying feelings of the Toronto alexithymia scale 20 (TAS-20), the sense of coherence and the Beck depression inventory 2 (BDI-II) and the Beck depression inventory (BDI)., Conclusion: Physical and psychosocial effects imply correlation with the application of doping substances but might not only be due to the side effects of these substances but also caused by the system, which exerts great psychological pressure and stress during adolescence, a highly vulnerable phase., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Several national and international organisations are involved in doping prevention. The aim is to guarantee athletes' health and fairness in competitions. Accurate and regularly updated information is available to help prevent the physical and psychological complications associated with doping., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

The objective of the present research was to examine doping-related decisional trade-offs, and their relationship with health risk perceptions towards doping and moral attitudes in sport. A mixed methods sequential-explanatory design was used. In Study 1,249, Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) athletes from 16 countries completed anonymous online questionnaires on decisional trade-offs related to doping, health risk beliefs towards doping, moral attitudes in sport, and socio-demographic variables. The results showed that almost 1 in 10 athletes would trade their life for sporting success, independently of the moral implications of their choice. When mortal threat was absent, 31.5% of the athletes would trade morality for sporting success. Decisional trade-off choices differentiated scores in moral attitudes, such as acceptance of cheating and keeping winning in proportion. In Study 2, 11 British competitive MMA athletes were interviewed about decisional trade-offs involving moral violations or mortal threats. Thematic analysis corroborated the Study 1 findings, with most athletes dismissing the doping choice involving a mortal threat but endorsing the one where the mortal threat was absent. Anti-doping education in MMA athletes should target the decision-making process underlying doping, with an emphasis on moral values and the adverse health risk effects of doping.

Background: Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are traditionally used for the treatment/control of various diseases; however, they are being used for non-therapeutic and indiscriminate purposes to enhance sports performance and physical appearance. This study aimed to assess the prevalence and associated factors of AAS use among professional CrossFit® competitors., Methods: We conducted an observational cross-sectional survey in which an anonymous questionnaire was applied to professional CrossFit ® athletes., Results: The prevalence of AAS usage was 33.3%. Most users were male (74.2%), aged between 30 and 39 years (51.6%), with completed higher education (83.9%), and had been training for more than 5 years (77.4%); the primary motivation for AAS use was performance enhancement (77.4%). Individuals who were older ( p  < 0.05) and more experienced in competitions ( p  < 0.01) are more likely to use AAS. Testosterone was the most employed AAS (71.0%); CrossFit ® athletes typically used an average of 2 different AAS. The majority of users had notably sought advice from a physician (74.2%), and AAS were acquired from either drugstores (80.6%) or through illicit channels (29.0%). Moreover, 61.3% of AAS users reported experiencing adverse effects., Conclusions: Our results demonstrated a higher prevalence of AAS users among professional competitors in CrossFit ® compared to the general population; older age and greater experience in official competitions were decisive factors for a greater inclination toward AAS use. A significant percentage of athletes seek drugs through illegal channels. Despite the majority of users experiencing adverse effects, athletes report satisfaction with use, believing that the benefits still outweigh the drawbacks.

Prior research has examined the relationships between morality, attitudes, and intentions related to doping predominantly via correlational studies based on the theoretical frameworks provided by extensions to the theory of planned behaviour, and the social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. In contrast, the present study experimentally analysed a psychological process (i.e., self-validation) through which thought morality can influence attitudes and intentions. Two hundred and forty-two participants (122 males and 120 females) were randomly assigned to read a message either against or in favour of legalising several doping behaviours in sports, then listed their thoughts regarding that proposal. Next, they were randomly assigned to perceive their thoughts as either moral or immoral, then indicated the extent to which they considered their thoughts as valid. Finally, participants reported their attitudes and intentions regarding the legalisation proposal. As hypothesised, the anti-legalisation (vs. pro-legalisation) message produced more unfavourable thoughts and attitudes, as well as lower intentions to support the legalisation proposal and engage in banned behaviours if legalised in sport. Most importantly, the effects of message direction on attitudes and intentions were greater for participants in the moral (vs. immoral) thought condition. Furthermore, changes in attitudes were consistent with a self-validation process.

Dietary supplements are widely used among athletes, but many may be unaware of the potential for unintentional doping, especially considering that supplements can often be contaminated with prohibited substances. The reason behind the widespread use of dietary supplements among athletes is often cited as being for the purposes of enhancing health or performance. However, many athletes turn to unreliable sources of information, and often lack knowledge of dietary supplement regulations. The aim of this narrative review is to explore the current research surrounding the psychological constructs (such as norms, attitudes, and beliefs) related to dietary supplement use among athletes that may lead to inadvertent doping. This review also covers possible programme structures that may be effective at preventing inadvertent doping.

Background: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of the World Anti-Doping Agency's e-learning programme for anti-doping education on knowledge of, explicit and implicit attitudes towards, and likelihood of doping among Chinese college athletes and non-athletes., Method: Thirty-two young adults (including 16 college athletes) were recruited to receive the Athlete Learning Program about Health and Anti-Doping (ALPHA) intervention (Zh-hans version). Another 32 young adults were recruited for no-treatment control purposes. Before and immediately after the intervention, the ALPHA test, performance enhancement attitude scale, doping likelihood scale, and brief implicit association test (BIAT) were performed. Cortical activity during the BIAT test was monitored using a functional near-infrared spectroscopy instrument., Results: Significant intervention effects were observed for knowledge (p < 0.01, η 2  = 0.21) and explicit attitude (p < 0.05, η 2  = 0.12) but not for doping likelihood (p > 0.05; benefit situation: η 2  = 0.04; cost situation: η 2  = 0.02). Compared with the non-athletes, the college athletes reported lower doping likelihood scores in benefit situations (e.g., financial gain, p < 0.05, η 2  = 0.10). Regarding the BIAT task, the experimental effect was successfully induced by different semantic associations between the concepts and the attitude (doping + like vs. doping + dislike). The mean reaction times (p < 0.01, η 2  = 0.36) and error rate (p < 0.01, η 2  = 0.34) in the doping-like block were higher than those in the doping-dislike block. Moreover, oxygenated haemoglobin (oxy-Hb) in response to BIAT interference in the temporoparietal junction-related channels was increased during the post-intervention test (p < 0.05, η 2 varied from 0.09 to 0.16)., Conclusions: The findings suggest that the online anti-doping education programme is partially effective among Chinese college athletes and non-athletes. Furthermore, our findings reflect enhanced cognitive control after the education intervention to suppress a prepotent implicit attitude towards doping., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

The use of substances and medications with potential cardiovascular effects among those practicing sports and physical activity has progressively increased in recent years. This is also connected to the promotion of physical activity and exercise as core aspects of a healthy lifestyle, which has led also to an increase in sport participation across all ages. In this context, three main users' categories can be identified, (i) professional and amateur athletes using substances to enhance their performance, (ii) people with chronic conditions, which include physical activity and sport in their therapeutic plan, in association with prescribed medications, and (iii) athletes and young individuals using supplements or ergogenic aids to integrate their diet or obtaining a cognitive enhancement effect. All the substances used for these purposes have been reported to have side effects, among whom the cardiovascular consequences are the most dangerous and could lead to cardiac events. The cardiovascular effect depends on the type of substance, the amount, the duration of use, and the individual response to the substances, considering the great variability in responses. This Position Paper reviews the recent literature and represents an update to the previously published Position Paper published in 2006. The objective is to inform physicians, athletes, coaches, and those participating in sport for a health enhancement purpose, about the adverse cardiovascular effects of doping substances, commonly prescribed medications and ergogenic aids, when associated with sport and exercise., (Published on behalf of the European Society of Cardiology. All rights reserved. © The Author(s) 2022. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

The misuse of dietary supplements and doping substances is commonly associated with toxicity, nutritional imbalances, and health and psychological consequences. This is alarming especially in light of the increasing prevalence of the use of dietary supplements and doping, particularly among young adults including athletes. There is evidence that education interventions can lead to improved knowledge, intentions, and practices. However, no review has summarized and evaluated the effectiveness of such interventions. The aim of this article is to review the characteristics, contents and effects of education interventions that were designed and implemented to improve knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and intentions with respect to the use of dietary supplements and doping agents in different populations. PubMed, Scopus, CINAHL, PsycInfo and Google Scholar were searched for English-language education interventions targeting dietary supplements and doping substances. A total of 20 articles were identified and have generally provided consistent findings. Most interventions reported a significant improvement in knowledge on dietary supplements and doping agents. Unfortunately, the heavy reliance on self-reported assessment tools limits the validity of these interventions, with almost all articles targeting athletes and adolescents.

Objectives: Doping-related knowledge, beliefs and attitude influence adolescent athletes' susceptibility to prohibited performance-enhancing substances. They might be modified by different cultural backgrounds. This study's aim was to analyse the geographical heterogeneity of doping-related knowledge, beliefs and attitude among adolescent elite athletes., Design: Cross-sectional study., Methods: A questionnaire was distributed to athletes participating in the Winter Youth Olympic Games 2020 in Switzerland. Main outcomes ('subjective and actual knowledge', 'beliefs' and 'attitude') were stratified for athletes' region of origin. Geographical heterogeneity was tested with a two-way analysis of variance, and two multiple regression analyses were conducted to assess independent associations of knowledge, age and athletes' geographical region with doping-related beliefs and attitude., Results: 533 athletes (54% females, mean age: 16.0 ± 1.0 years), completed the questionnaire (response rate: 33%). Actual knowledge was moderate-to-good (9.2 ± 2.9 correct answers out of 13), and scores of attitude and beliefs showed favourable patterns. Considerable geographical heterogeneity was found for knowledge (p < 0.001), beliefs (p = 0.004) and attitude (p < 0.001). Higher subjective knowledge and actual knowledge were favourably associated with attitude (β = -0.096, p = 0.049; β = -0.316, p < 0.001) and beliefs (β = 0.120, p = 0.016; β = 0.212, p < 0.001), independent of age and geographical region., Conclusions: This study demonstrates considerable geographical heterogeneity of doping-related knowledge, beliefs and attitude, which are three essential target factors of doping prevention in adolescent elite athletes. This evidence should encourage medical doctors and other professionals to change their educative anti-doping approach from teaching knowledge about negative consequences into investigating and forming a young athlete's mind-set., (Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Whistleblowing against anti-doping rule violations and related misconduct has been recognized as an important deterrent of doping behaviour in competitive sport. However, research on whistleblowing against doping is scarce and the available studies have focused on small samples using qualitative and inductive approaches. The present study used quantitative methods to assess, for the first time, the association between self-determined motivation, achievement goals, sportspersonship orientations and intentions to engage in whistleblowing against doping misconduct. A total of 992 competitive athletes from Greece ( n = 480) and Russia ( n = 512) completed structured measures of self-determination, achievement goals, sportspersonship orientation beliefs, and intentions to report doping misconduct. Latent profile analysis classified athletes into clusters consistent with the theoretical predictions. One-way analyses of variance further showed consistently across countries that autonomous motivated athletes reported higher intentions to whistleblow, and athletes with higher scores in achievement goals and sportspersonship orientations had significantly higher scores in whistleblowing intentions, compared to those with lower scores in these characteristics in both countries. This is the first study to demonstrate the association between motivational regulations, achievement goals, sportspersonship beliefs, and whistleblowing intentions. The theoretical and policy implications of our study are discussed.

Objectives: The authors aimed to develop a moral intervention and to determine whether it was more effective in preventing doping than an educational (i.e., knowledge-based) intervention; their primary outcome was doping likelihood, and the secondary outcomes were moral identity, moral disengagement, moral atmosphere, and anticipated guilt., Methods: Eligible athletes (N = 303) in the United Kingdom and Greece took part in the study. The authors randomly assigned 33 clubs to either the moral or the educational intervention. They measured outcomes pre- and postintervention and at 3- and 6-month follow-up., Results: Athletes in both interventions in both countries reported lower doping likelihood and moral disengagement and higher guilt from pre- to postintervention. These effects were maintained at the 3- and 6-month follow-ups. There were no effects on moral identity or moral atmosphere., Conclusions: In addition to disseminating information about doping, doping prevention programs should include content that focuses on moral variables.

Objectives: Our study objectives were twofold: 1) examine whether users and non-users of different types of sport supplements vary in doping attitudes and sport supplement beliefs, and 2) determine whether the type of sport supplement is directly and indirectly (via sport supplement beliefs) related to doping attitudes., Design: Cross-sectional survey., Methods: Athletes (N=557; 77% male, mean±standard deviation; age=20.8±4.5 years, training=5.7±4.2h per week, competing=11.1±5.2 years) completed measures of sport supplement use, sport supplement beliefs, and doping attitudes. Sport supplements were classified into: ergogenic, medical, sport food and drinks, and superfoods., Results: Compared to non-users, users of ergogenic (d=0.31, p<0.01) and medical (d=0.42, p<0.01) sport supplements reported more favourable attitudes towards doping. In addition, compared to non-users, users of ergogenic (d=1.10, p<0.01), medical (d=0.80, p<0.01) and sport food/drink (d=0.58, p<0.01) supplements reported stronger beliefs in the effectiveness of sport supplements to improve sport performance. Use of ergogenic, medical and sport food/drink supplements was indirectly related to doping attitudes via sport supplement beliefs., Conclusions: Researchers examining the relationship between sport supplement use and doping should differentiate between sport supplement types to improve measurement accuracy. Sport practitioners administering ergogenic and medical sport supplements to athletes may need to provide additional anti-doping education to counteract any favourable attitudes towards doping., (Copyright © 2020 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Both doping (e.g. Hodge, K., Hargreaves, E. A., Gerrard, D. F., & Lonsdale, C. (2013). Psychological mechanisms underlying doping attitudes in sport: Motivation and moral disengagement. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 35 , 419-432.) and eating behaviours (e.g. Hagger, M. S., Chatzisarantis, N. L., & Harris, J. (2006). From psychological need satisfaction to intentional behaviour: Testing a motivational sequence in two behavioural contexts. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 32 , 131-148.) have been studied independently within the SDT framework, but no research has examined these variables concomitantly to better understand the relationships between motivation for sport and doping variables. We therefore examined the mediating role of eating behaviour in the relationship between SDT constructs for sport motivation and athletes' susceptibility to doping. Bootstrapped mediation analyses were performed for 171 male and female athletes with competitive experience in various sports. The analyses revealed that healthy eating behaviours significantly mediated the relationship between SDT motivational constructs and susceptibility to doping. The findings enrich our theoretical understanding of how the SDT approach to motivation for sport might provide insight into the susceptibility to doping; that is, through the potential mediating role of healthy eating behaviours. Finally, the potential central position of eating behaviours in the motivation-doping relationship opens up a potential swathe of novel research, with investigations into eating behaviours at the forefront of future research on the psychology of doping.

The spirit of sport, which encompasses intrinsic values associated with sport participation, is core to the World Anti-Doping Agency's (WADA) strategy for doping prevention. The contribution of these values to clean sport has yet to be established. In this study, athletes rated the importance of spirit of sport values (WADA, 2015) and sport values (Lee et al., 2000, 2008) and indicated their clean sport likelihood in a hypothetical scenario. Clean sport likelihood was positively predicted by the five spirit of sport values (ethics/fair play/honesty, respect for rules/laws, dedication/commitment, teamwork, community/solidarity), two sport value domains (morality, competence), and 11 sport values (contract maintenance, being fair, conscientiousness, sportspersonship, show skills, health/fitness, caring/compassion, team cohesion, achievement, tolerance, obedience). Clean sport likelihood was best predicted by moral values.

Objectives: Coach-centred antidoping education is scarce. We tested the efficacy of a motivationally informed antidoping intervention for coaches, with their athletes' willingness to dope as the primary outcome., Methods: We delivered a cluster randomised controlled trial in Australia, the UK and Greece. This study was a parallel group, two-condition, superiority trial. Participants were 130 coaches and 919 athletes. Coaches in the intervention group attended two workshops and received supplementary information to support them in adopting a motivationally supportive communication style when discussing doping-related issues with their athletes. Coaches in the control condition attended a standard antidoping workshop that provided up-to-date information on antidoping issues yet excluded any motivation-related content. Assessments of willingness to dope (primary outcome) and other secondary outcomes were taken at baseline, postintervention (3 months) and at a 2-month follow up., Results: Compared with athletes in the control group, athletes in the intervention group reported greater reductions in willingness to take prohibited substances (effect size g=0.17) and psychological need frustration (g=0.23) at postintervention, and greater increases in antidoping knowledge (g=0.27) at follow-up. Coaches in the intervention group reported at postintervention greater increases in efficacy to create an antidoping culture (g=0.40) and in perceived effectiveness of need supporting behaviours (g=0.45) to deal with doping-related situations. They also reported greater decreases in doping attitudes (g=0.24) and perceived effectiveness of need thwarting behaviours (g=0.35)., Conclusions: Antidoping education programmes should consider incorporating principles of motivation, as these could be beneficial to coaches and their athletes. We offer suggestions to strengthen these programmes, as most of the effects we observed were not sustained at follow-up., Trial Registration Number: This trial has been registered with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=371465&isReview=true)., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2021. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Perfectionism may promote engagement in illegal and unacceptable behaviours such as doping. To examine this idea, in the present study, we had two aims. First, we re-examined the relationship between perfectionism and attitudes towards doping and, in doing so, conducted a continuously cumulating meta-analysis. Second, we extended our understanding of this relationship by providing the first test of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism in context of doping. A sample of 181 university athletes (mean age 18.5 years) completed measures of perfectionism (evaluative concerns perfectionism [ECP] and personal standards perfectionism [PSP]) and attitudes toward doping. A continuously cumulating meta-analysis based on five studies (including the present study; N  = 952) indicated that ECP showed a significant small-to-medium positive relationship with attitudes towards doping ( r +  = .21), whereas PSP showed a nonsignificant small positive relationship with attitudes towards doping ( r +  = .07). In addition, moderated regression analysis provided support for two hypotheses of the 2 × 2 model. Specifically, pure ECP (high ECP, low PSP) was associated with more favourable attitudes towards doping than mixed perfectionism (high ECP, high PSP) and non-perfectionism (low ECP, low PSP). The present findings suggest that ECP is a significant positive predictor of attitudes towards doping and that athletes who exhibit a combination of high ECP and low PSP are the most likely to be at risk of doping. Consequently, a focus on reducing ECP may be a valuable addition to anti-doping education programmes.

We examined the relationships between the Dark Triad personality traits (Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy), attitudes towards doping, and cheating behaviour among athletes. One-hundred and sixty-four athletes completed a completed a matrix solving task within a specific time limit. Participants were told they would receive a financial reward for the total number matrices they could solve, but only 13 of the 20 matrices were solvable. This provided the incentive and opportunity for the athletes to cheat. Following this, athletes completed two questionnaires, which assessed the Dark Triad and their attitudes towards doping. All three Dark Triad personality traits correlated positively with attitudes towards doping and cheating behaviour. Regression analyses revealed that psychopathy and narcissism positively predicted attitudes towards doping, and narcissism emerged as a positive predictor of cheating behaviour. Attitudes towards doping correlated positively with cheating behaviour. The Dark Triad appears to be important in relation to both attitudes towards doping and cheating behaviour among athletes. In addition, our findings illustrate that favourable attitudes towards doping are linked with actual cheating among athletes. National Anti-Doping Organizations, sports federations, and coaches could assess athletes' Dark Triad scores and attitudes towards doping in order to identify who may be more likely to cheat.

Although research investigating doping in sport is burgeoning, there is still a lack of proxy measures of doping behavior that have undergone extensive psychometric testing. To address this issue, we modified a previously used measure of doping willingness in sport and tested aspects of validity and reliability across four studies. In Study 1, we provided support for the face and content validity of the items, and then found support for the factor structure of the scale in a sample of athletes (N = 205) using confirmatory factor analysis. In Study 2, we collected data from an independent sample of athletes (N = 236) to provide further evidence for the factor structure of the scale using confirmatory factor analysis as well as provided evidence for concurrent and discriminant validity. In Study 3, a further independent sample of athletes (N = 144) completed the scale and provided support for discriminant and predictive validity of the scale. In Study 4, we collected data from a further independent sample (N = 74) to provide support for the test-retest reliability, and stability of items. Lastly, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the samples across Studies 3 and 4, and the composite sample across all four studies which provided further support for the factor structure of the final 8-item scale. Taken together, these findings provide psychometric support for the scale to be used to measure the willingness of athletes to use banned substances to help facilitate future research investigating doping in sport., (© 2020 The Authors. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science In Sports published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: Doping in young athletes at present is on escalation. A few doping cases involving athletes from South East Asia (SEA) countries have been reported. The objective of this study is to determine current perceived doping and antidoping climate in Malaysia through an exploration of doping-related knowledge, perception and beliefs among the university athletes., Methods: A survey was conducted during the Malaysian Universities Games in Kuala Lumpur 2014. A total of 614 athletes completed the questionnaires on perception, specific knowledge, environment, behavior and beliefs towards doping., Results: From this survey, we found that their knowledge about doping and antidoping was poor, they have misguided beliefs and perception about doping, and their environment seems to be favorable for performance enhancing substances usage in the future. We grouped the athletes based on their doping's environment into ultraclean, potential and high-risk group; and the results showed that they have a significant relationship with their knowledge, beliefs and perception about doping in sports, P<0.001. About 1.5-1.8% of the studied athletes have positive behavior towards doping practice; doping use, χ2 =24.6(2) P<0.001 and doping willingness, χ2 =17.15(2) P<0.001., Conclusions: Doping behavior and doping risks in this region are still under-studied. Hence, we recommended that every South East Asia countries would identify the potential risks of doping among their young athletes, and collectively collaborating in managing doping issues involving this region. Special attention should be given to doping environment as it has negative influences on athletes behavior towards doping.

Basic values, defined as trans-situational goals that vary in importance and act as guiding principles in life, have been linked with unethical cognitions, emotions and actions. Their roles in doping, a form of cheating in sport, have yet to established. College athletes reported doping likelihood in hypothetical scenario-based situations and completed measures of basic values, moral disengagement, and anticipated guilt. Correlation analysis showed that doping likelihood was positively associated with self-enhancement values but negatively associated with self-transcendence values and conservation values. Moral disengagement correlated positively with self-enhancement values and negatively with self-transcendence values, whereas guilt correlated positively conservation values and negatively with self-enhancement values and openness to change values. Regression analyses showed that self-enhancement values positively predicted doping likelihood directly, self-transcendence values negatively predicted doping likelihood indirectly via moral disengagement and guilt, and conservation values negatively predicted doping likelihood indirectly via guilt. In line with theory and evidence concerning the relationship between basic value systems and moral thought and action, we found that the values of athletes are directly (self-enhancement) and indirectly (self-transcendence, conservation) linked with likely use of banned performance enhancing substances, an expression of cheating in sport.

Research has shown that athletes' attitudes towards the use of banned performance-enhancing substances are reliable predictors of their intentions to use these substances, which in turn can be relevant predictors of their actual doping behaviours. Despite the important role played by attitudes and intentions in doping, research analysing how to change those attitudes and intentions is relatively scarce. The present study examined how individual differences in Need for Cognition (NC, Cacioppo & Petty, 1982) influenced doping-related attitude change and subsequent behavioural intentions. Participants were randomly assigned to read a persuasive message either against or in favour of legalising the use of several banned substances, including anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) and Erythropoietin (EPO). In addition, participants completed the NC scale, and finally reported their attitudes and behavioural intentions regarding the legalisation proposal. As hypothesised, results showed that participants who received an anti-legalisation message had significantly more unfavourable attitudes towards the proposal than participants who received a pro-legalisation message, regardless of NC. However, as predicted, NC moderated the relationship between individuals' attitudes and their intentions. That is, high-NC participants showed greater attitude-intention correspondence than low-NC participants.

A significant barrier to understanding the psychosocial antecedents of doping use among adolescent athletes is the lack of valid measures. In order to address this issue, the first aim of this paper was to develop and validate the Adolescent Sport Drug Inventory (ASDI) among adolescent athletes from Asia, Europe, North America, and Oceania. The second aim was to assess the construct validity of the ASDI. As such, this paper is divided into two parts. Part 1 relates to the development of the ASDI and contains two studies: item development (Study 1) and factorial validity (Study 2). Part 2 contains information on how the psychosocial variables measured in the ASDI are associated with situational temptation, and honesty (Study 3), maturation (Study 4), stress and coping (Study 5), and coaching (Study 6). In devising the ASDI, 19 different models were examined, which culminated in a 9-factor, 43-item ASDI. Coping, mastery-approach goals, and cognitive-social maturity were associated with doping attitudes. Caring motivational climates, strong coach-athlete relationships, and positive coach behaviors were associated with athletes being less susceptible toward doping, which provides construct validity for the ASDI. The ASDI is a valid tool to assess the psychosocial factors associated with doping among adolescent athletes. This questionnaire can be used to identify athletes who are the most at risk of doping, assess how the psychosocial factors associated with doping change over time, and to monitor the impact of antidoping interventions for adolescent athletes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The present study investigated athletes' and coaches' beliefs about the role of athletes' entourage in deterring or promoting doping. Competitive athletes and coaches in Greece and Australia took part in semi-structured interviews. Our analysis of the interviews produced five main themes: coach influence, peer influence, doping stance, doping stigma, and entourage's culture. Overall, coaches and peers having a close and trusty relationship with the athletes were considered most influential with respect to doping-related decisions. The majority of the athletes held a strong anti-doping stance but could not articulate why they held this position. This inability could be ascribed to the stigmatization of doping which led to lack of knowledge and anti-doping education. Finally, an anti-doping culture in the athletes' environment was considered central to an anti-doping stance. The study findings provide valuable information towards a comprehensive understanding of the role athletes' entourage can play in shaping athletes' attitudes and decision for doping.

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are image and performance enhancing drugs (IPEDs) that can improve endurance and athletic performance, reduce body fat and stimulate muscle growth. The use of steroids has been studied in the medical and psychological literature, in the sociology of sport, health and masculinity, and relatively recently in criminology. Whilst there is significant medical and psychological evidence on the short term and longer side effects of AAS, there is surprisingly very little evidence based on the users' perception of the negative aspects of AAS use. Drawing on ethnographic research conducted in a locale in the Northeast of England and additional interviews with 24 AAS users, the article offers an account of the negatives aspects of AAS as put forwards by users (acne, abscess, and mood alterations), and highlights the 'code of silence' that exists around AAS use. This 'code' makes AAS users a 'hard-to-reach' group for medical professionals. By listening to the participants' perspectives, forensic and medical professionals can be better informed towards monitoring and reducing harms from AAS., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Objectives: We tested a conceptually grounded model linking athlete perceptions of strength and conditioning and technical coach doping confrontation efficacy (DCE) with athletes' doping self-regulatory efficacy (SRE), doping moral disengagement (MD), and susceptibility to intentional and inadvertent doping., Design: Cross-sectional, correlational., Methods: Participants were high-level athletes (n male  = 532; n female  = 290) recruited in Australia (n = 261), the UK (n = 300), and the USA (n = 261). All participants completed questionnaires assessing the variables alongside a variant of the randomized response technique to estimate the prevalence of doping., Results: The estimated prevalence of intentional doping in the sample was 13.9%. Structural equation modeling established: (a) perceptions of technical and strength and conditioning coaches' DCE positively predicted doping SRE; (b) doping SRE negatively predicted doping MD; (c) doping MD positively predicted susceptibility to intentional and inadvertent doping; and (d) the predictive effects of coach perceptions on susceptibility to doping were mediated by doping SRE and doping MD. Multisample analyses demonstrated these predictive effects were invariant between males and females and across the three countries represented., Conclusions: The findings show the conceptually grounded model to offer extended understanding of how multiple individuals within the athlete support personnel network may influence athlete doping., (© 2019 The Authors. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science In Sports Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Objectives: The aim of this study was to study and compare attitudes, beliefs and knowledge about doping of footballers, from elite to under-18 categories., Design: The descriptive exploratory design used an instrument combining a validated questionnaire (Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale: PEAS) with qualitative open-ended questions., Methods: A total of 1324 Spanish football players (average age 22.56 ± 5.62 years) from 88 football teams that ranged from elite to under-18 categories: Elite (ELI, n = 304), non-elite Professional (PRO, n = 308), top Amateur (AMA, n = 330), elite Under-18 (U18, n = 334) and elite Female (FEM, n = 48) composed the sample., Results: PEAS overall scores (range 17-102, with higher scores representing more permissive attitudes) was 34.02 ± 11.08. The overall scores for all groups analysed were: FEM: 33.75 ± 14.73; ELI: 30.61 ± 9.91; PRO: 34.23 ± 11.13; AMA: 35.05 ± 10.35; and U18: 35.93 ± 11.50. Significant differences were observed between ELI and PRO (p < 0.001), ELI and AMA (p < 0.001), and ELI and U18 (p < 0.001). 95% of participants did not know the meaning of WADA; 97.4% did not know the Prohibited List; 5% admitted having used banned substances and 23.7% knew dopers., Conclusions: This study showed different an important lack of knowledge about doping and an high levels of supplement use in this sample of footballers assessed. It which clearly reinforces the idea of implementing a wide educational doping prevention programme in football environment., (Copyright © 2019 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of this study was to examine: 1) whether sport supplement use is related to doping and 2) whether sport supplement beliefs mediated this relationship. In Study 1, athletes ( N = 598), completed measures of sport supplement use, sport supplement beliefs, and doping attitudes. In Study 2, athletes ( N = 475) completed measures of sport supplement use, sport supplement beliefs, and doping likelihood. In both studies, sport supplement use predicted doping outcomes indirectly via sport supplement beliefs. Our findings provide novel evidence to suggest that sport supplement users, who strongly believe that sport supplements are effective, are more likely to dope. For anti-doping organisations wishing to prevent doping, targeting an athlete's beliefs about sport supplements may improve the effectiveness of anti-doping prevention programmes.

Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared.

Introduction: The use of doping substances is growing not only in young athletes performing competitive and non-competitive sports, but also in amateur sports, thereby representing a social and public health problem. The aim of this study was to measure knowledge, attitudes and opinions on doping and drugs and their effects, among students of secondary schools, and to assess the effectiveness of a health education intervention. "Enjoy the Sport- the school against doping and addiction 2.0" is a program developed to discourage the use of drugs, in particular doping drugs, by introducing information on the origins, on the effects of drugs and examples of appropriate lifestyles. This project was conceived by C.I.S.C.O.D. (Comitato Italiano Sport Contro Droga), an association of the C.O.N.I. and carried out with its support., Materials and Methods: The "Enjoy" project was a study with a one-arm experimental design and with a pre-post evaluation. A multiple-choice questionnaire was used to measure adolescents' knowledge, attitudes and opinions on doping and its effects. A descriptive analysis and post-pre intervention comparison was performed with the McNemar test., Results: There was a significant increase in participants' knowledge of doping substances indicated by the WADA (World Anti-Doping Agency) (p&lt;0.001) and a better understanding of the meaning of the term "doping". A decrease in the number of adolescents who would use doping substances (pre = 0.06%; post = 0.0%) was observed, as well as an increase in the number of adolescents who do not consider fair that athletes of any level should use substances that alter their performance (pre = 83.7%; post = 85%). A significant increase was observed in the proportion of participants who believe that athletes should not use doping substances because they are harmful to the human organism (pre = 38.6%; post = 51.7%) (p&lt;0.001)., Conclusions: The project "Enjoy the Sport" contributed to increasing the health literacy of secondary school students about doping (and consequent awareness of the negative aspects of drug use). Schools, therefore, are an appropriate setting for implementing educational interventions for the prevention of doping. However, it is fundamental to integrate knowledge and action, especially in the context of family, sport and sports associations.

There are two camps when it comes to youth in high-performance sports and whether competition is good or destructive. Despite opportunities for positive development, the demands of increasing competitive levels and related situational stressors among young athletes can be a double-edged sword. Doping is becoming increasingly popular and more readily available to the youth sports population. Improving the health of youth in competitive sport requires us to think about health and its determinants in a more sophisticated manner. We share a current initiative in Germany that reflects this broader thinking by integrating 'education for health literacy' as one strategy in youth sport settings with regard to doping prevention. Implications and emerging opportunities to take further action for doping prevention and health improvement applicable for German and global contexts are offered.

The text sets out to examine so-called "interdisciplinary" research practices when researchers work on health issues. The article specifies the author's approach, which departs from both a normative posture and a purely epistemological approach, instead opting to study an interdisciplinary act in progress. Based on an ANR report led by Trabal, Collinet and Terral (2014), the research presented mobilizes the latest developments in socio-informatics to examine forms of interdisciplinarity in two areas - doping and obesity. It appears that the research on doping is marked by strong asymmetries between disciplines, and that "true" interdisciplinarity is often postponed when it does not seem to lend itself to a simple mode of coordination. In the case of obesity, we observe that practices are marked by staging and display work; the demand for interdisciplinarity is combined with a desire to structure a professional identity. In all cases, we were able to identify some trails that have been blazed to enable researchers to respond jointly to disciplinary and interdisciplinary injunctions. The promise is an interesting figure that relies on a postponement of proof, made possible by weak codification of interdisciplinarity., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Background: This study was conducted to elucidate the anti-doping (AD) education, doping control experience, and AD knowledge according to the World Anti-doping Code (Code) of Japanese university athletes., Methods: We collected data from 514 male athletes (M age  = 19.53 years, SD = 1.13) and 629 female athletes (M age  = 20.99 years, SD = 1.07). We asked them about their experience undergoing doping control and the AD education they had received. Then, we assessed their AD knowledge using the World Anti-Doping Agency's Athlete Learning Program about Health and AD (ALPHA) test., Results: The results showed that 2.54% of the participants had undergone doping control. Further, 30.10% received AD education at least once, and 20.82% received AD education more than once. When comparing the ALPHA scores of athletes with/without doping test experience, we observed no significant difference. However, the ALPHA scores of athletes with/without AD education were significantly different; specifically, athletes who received AD education more than once had significantly higher ALPHA scores than non-educated athletes., Conclusion: These results revealed that doping control experience was not related to AD knowledge and that AD education was associated with AD knowledge, suggesting that athletes who receive AD education more than once have more accurate AD knowledge than less educated athletes on this topic. The importance of AD education in promoting understanding of AD according to the Code in sports is highlighted in this study.

Background: Although performance-enhancing drugs appear to be prevalent in adolescent sports, relatively little attention has been paid to why adolescent athletes decide to use these drugs. In this study, we examine doping among adolescents from a motivational perspective and explore how motivational variables, such as achievement goal orientations and the perceived self-determination of sports activities, may be related to moral attitudes, doping intentions and doping behavior in adolescents who participate in competitive sports., Methodology: The study included 1035 adolescents participating in competitive sports from all regions of the Czech Republic (mean age = 16.3 years). The respondents completed a battery of questionnaires assessing their achievement goal orientations (task, ego), sports motivation at various levels of self-determination (intrinsic motivation, external regulation, amotivation), moral attitudes toward sport competition (acceptance of cheating, keeping winning in proportion, attitudes toward doping), doping intentions and doping behavior. A structural equation model was used to test the relations among motivational variables, attitudes, intentions and doping behavior., Principal Results: Our analyses indicated a good fit with the proposed model, which explained 59% of the variance in doping intentions and 17.6% of the variance in doping behavior. Within the model, task orientation was positively associated with intrinsic motivation and lower amotivation, whereas ego orientation was positively associated with extrinsic regulation and amotivation. Furthermore, intrinsic motivation was positively associated with keeping winning in proportion and negatively associated with acceptance of cheating and attitudes toward doping; the less self-determined forms of motivation showed opposite relationships. However, only the acceptance of cheating and attitudes toward doping were related to doping intention, which subsequently predicted doping behavior., Conclusions/significance: The results provide further evidence that sports motivation represents a psychological variable that should be considered in anti-doping policies, programs, and interventions aimed at the adolescent population because motivation was linked to the doping-related attitudinal variables and also partially mediated the effect of achievement goal orientations in this regard. On the basis of these results, we may argue that the focus on intrinsic enjoyment, self-referenced criteria of success and self-improvement may be related to more negative attitudes toward doping and cheating, lower doping intentions and less frequent doping behavior, whereas the emphasis on competition, comparison with others and external motivation appear to be related to the opposite outcomes., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The use of performance- and image-enhancing drugs in the past seventy years or so has sparked a number of responses, including heated public debates, the creation of dedicated organisations and drug policies, as well as the emergence of communities of practice and belief in support of or in opposition to the phenomenon. Drug-free, known in the field as 'natural', bodybuilding has been developing since the 1970 s as a response to a dominant bodybuilding culture where the use of performance- and image-enhancing drugs has become normalised. Recent years have seen a multiplication of national and international governing bodies, competitions, and participants in drug-free bodybuilding in different parts of the globe. As the field grows, the questions of what constitutes natural bodybuilding and who can authentically represent it become central. Adopting a multi-method, qualitative approach, this article explores the ways organisations and their key figures define and defend their versions of drug-free bodybuilding. The discussion focus is on the policies, meanings and identities embedded in these different versions, and how their production and negotiation makes sense in light of antagonisms between players in the field of natural bodybuilding as well as their relation to drug-enhanced bodybuilding and the wider world of sport. In examining this previously uncharted body culture, the article explores how the use of performance- and image-enhancing drugs provokes responses and processes of contestation and differentiation. In the process, what becomes apparent is the designation and negotiation of drug-free, natural bodies as an ongoing, dynamic, social process., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background : Doping behavior, including the misuse of performance-enhancing drugs, is currently a serious problem in sports, and the efficacy of preventive efforts directly depends on information regarding the associations among different precipitating factors (PF) and doping behavior. This study aimed to establish the PF of potential doping behavior (PDB) in competitive swimmers. Methods : The study included 301 swimmers from Slovenia (153 females, 16.4 ± 2.4 years), tested during the 2017 National Championship. Variables were collected by previously validated questionnaires, which included questions on sociodemographics, sports-related factors, consumption of dietary supplements, knowledge of doping, factors of hesitation, and doping-related factors (i.e., number of doping tests, opinion about the presence of doping in sport). The PDB (positive, neutral, or negative intention toward doping) was observed as a criterion, while other variables were included as predictors in multinomial regression analyses (with "negative" as reference value), which additionally controlled for gender and age category (cadet-, junior-, and senior-level) as confounders. Results : The results confirmed higher susceptibility to doping in males (positive: odds ratio (OR): 2.77, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.27⁻6.04), those swimmers who reported higher alcohol consumption (neutral: OR: 2.18, 95%CI: 1.06⁻4.16, positive: OR: 2.14, 95%CI: 1.05⁻4.37), and those regularly used dietary supplements (positive: OR: 3.62, 95%CI: 1.25⁻10.52). Competitive achievement in Olympic- (neutral: OR: 0.57, 95%CI: 0.41⁻0.81, positive: OR: 0.59, 95%CI: 0.39⁻0.88), and non-Olympic disciplines (positive: OR: 0.54, 95%CI: 0.35⁻0.83) was protective against PDB. Swimmers who were more concerned about the negative social consequences of doping behavior (i.e., condemnation by family and friends) were less likely to declare a positive intention toward the PDB (family condemnation: OR: 0.69, 95%CI: 0.56⁻0.86, friends' condemnation: OR: 0.65, 95%CI: 0.52⁻0.80). Conclusions : The results of the study provide more precise insight into the specific factors associated with PDB in swimming. The established precipitating factors should be incorporated into targeted anti-doping campaigns in this sport.

Achievement goal theory provides a framework to help understand how individuals behave in achievement contexts, such as sport. Evidence concerning the role of motivation in the decision to use banned performance enhancing substances (i.e., doping) is equivocal on this issue. The extant literature shows that dispositional goal orientation has been weakly and inconsistently associated with doping intention and use. It is possible that goal involvement, which describes the situational motivational state, is a stronger determinant of doping intention. Accordingly, the current study used an experimental design to examine the effects of goal involvement, manipulated using direct instructions and reflective writing, on doping likelihood in hypothetical situations in college athletes. The ego-involving goal increased doping likelihood compared to no goal and a task-involving goal. The present findings provide the first evidence that ego involvement can sway the decision to use doping to improve athletic performance.

Background: Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are said to be frequently used by both professional and amateur athletes. In addition to having a negative impact on health, steroids defy the concept of fair play. The aim of the study was to evaluate the scale of the problem related to using anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) by gym athletes and to analyze possible causes., Methods: The study involved 435 participants aged between 18-66 (mean age 27.49±7.48). Out of them, 61.4% were male and 38.6% were female. The subjects were divided into two groups: Group A included 154 (35.4%) amateur and recreational athletes and group B included 281 (64.6%) professional athletes concerned with fitness, bodybuilding and powerlifting. A survey prepared by the authors was conducted in the study, and it consisted of 23 closed questions about AAS use, body confidence, and exercise dependence. In addition, a stadiometer and a body composition analyzer were utilized to take necessary measurements., Results: Between 1-23% of group A participants admitted to using AAS. For group B, it was between 7-30%. Males were reported to use AAS more frequently than females in both groups. With regard to group A, differences in body confidence and exercise dependence were found between males using and not using AAS. Exercise dependence was reported to be different between group A and group B participants. This was true for both males and females. Also, it was shown that group A and group B females differed in terms of metabolic age, body mass and body composition (fat mass, fat-free mass, muscle mass, and total body water)., Conclusions: Most gym athletes do not use AAS. Amateur athletes tend to use AAS more frequently than professional athletes. Factors that contribute to AAS use are: male gender, low body confidence, young age, and long training.

Background: This study investigated athlete knowledge of the World Anti-doping Agency (WADA) Prohibited Substances List and the effects of four well-known performance enhancing substances (PES)., Methods: A sample of 1925 elite and sub-elite athletes (mean age 20.6 years) completed a questionnaire about the banned status of 30 substances/methods and their knowledge of the effects of amphetamines, anabolic steroids, growth hormone and erythropoietin., Results: Athletes showed limited understanding of the WADA Prohibited Substances List, scoring 32.2% correct, 36.3% incorrect, and 31.4% indicated they did not know the status of 30 substances. Responses of >50% correct were given for only eight substances/method: anabolic steroids, amphetamines, blood doping, erythropoietin, caffeine, vitamins/minerals, protein powders and iron. Athletes demonstrated moderate knowledge of the desired effects of the four PES (49% correct), but poor knowledge of their adverse effects (29% correct). Age, sex, ethnicity, professional/amateur status, and current competition level were significant predictors of the number of correct responses (r 2  = 0.16, p < 0.05). Athletes most likely to provide correct responses were male, 19-22 year-olds, Caucasian, professional and international representatives., Conclusion: This comprehensive study of anti-doping demonstrated that Australian athletes had limited knowledge of a wide range of substances and PES. Better targeted drug education towards younger and non-professional athletes and evaluation of current anti-doping programs are warranted., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: This preliminary study examined whether implicit doping attitude, explicit doping attitude, or both, predicted athletes' vigilance towards unintentional doping., Design: A cross-sectional correlational design., Methods: Australian athletes (N=143;M age =18.13, SD=4.63) completed measures of implicit doping attitude (brief single-category implicit association test), explicit doping attitude (Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale), avoidance of unintentional doping (Self-Reported Treatment Adherence Scale), and behavioural vigilance task of unintentional doping (reading the ingredients of an unfamiliar food product)., Results: Positive implicit doping attitude and explicit doping attitude were negatively related to athletes' likelihood of reading the ingredients table of an unfamiliar food product, and positively related to athletes' vigilance towards unintentional doping. Neither attitude measures predicted avoidance of unintentional doping. Overall, the magnitude of associations by implicit doping attitude appeared to be stronger than that of explicit doping attitude., Conclusions: Athletes with positive implicit and explicit doping attitudes were less likely to read the ingredients table of an unknown food product, but were more likely to be aware of the possible presence of banned substances in a certain food product. Implicit doping attitude appeared to explain athletes' behavioural response to the avoidance of unintentional doping beyond variance explained by explicit doping attitude., (Copyright © 2017 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Given the concern over doping in sport, researchers have begun to explore the role played by self-regulatory processes in the decision whether to use banned performance-enhancing substances. Grounded on Bandura's (1991) theory of moral thought and action, this study examined the role of self-regulatory efficacy, moral disengagement and anticipated guilt on the likelihood to use a banned substance among college athletes. Doping self-regulatory efficacy was associated with doping likelihood both directly (b = -.16, P < .001) and indirectly (b = -.29, P < .001) through doping moral disengagement. Moral disengagement also contributed directly to higher doping likelihood and lower anticipated guilt about doping, which was associated with higher doping likelihood. Overall, the present findings provide evidence to support a model of doping based on Bandura's social cognitive theory of moral thought and action, in which self-regulatory efficacy influences the likelihood to use banned performance-enhancing substances both directly and indirectly via moral disengagement.

The number of old persons who participate in sports and can even achieve peak performances is increasing steadily. Normal aging, however, is associated with decreased muscle strength and a decline in cardiovascular endurance even in those persons who regularly participate in sports. Thus, it seems obvious to impact on muscle mass and muscle strength by using anabolic substances. The number of older persons who illegally use doping substances is currently unknown. Besides classical anabolic drugs, other proteins and amino acids are used to impact on muscle mass or strength. This article provides some insights into clinical trials of classical anabolic drugs in older persons and gives an overview on more recent studies examining the potential effects of taurine, creatine and whey protein in older persons.

The war on drugs is usually associated with criminal policies aimed at stemming consumption of drugs such as heroin, cocaine, and cannabis, less so with enhancement drugs like those used in sport. As drug use in sport, or doping, has become more visibly widespread, policies aimed at combating the issue have become more restrictive, intrusive, and harsh. In this article we draw new comparisons between the wider war on drugs and recent developments in sports anti-doping. We identify a growing trend towards criminalisation of traffickers and users, and associate that with another growing trend: the testing of amateur athletes. This article reviews the current anti-doping system, including the recent amateur policies, then considers of the results of one such program in amateur cycling. We then shift to consider the possible implications for amateurs of criminal doping laws and the recent debates about allowing medical exemptions for therapeutic use of banned substances. We show that drug use in sport can be understood as a new front in the war on drugs, with some extreme measures and many negative unintended consequences. To remedy this, we argue that amateur athletes require a separate anti-doping policy focused on minimising harms of use., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: The motives for elite athletes to dope are related primarily to maintaining and improving their physical performance. Especially, elite athletes training to compete in the Olympics may feel unique situational pressure, which may in turn induce powerful motivation for doping and predict doping behavior. This study aimed to investigate possible factors associated with attitudes towards doping in Korean national athletes who competed in the Rio 2016 Olympic Games., Methods: A total of 198 athletes (95 female, 103 male) completed the questionnaire, which covered demographic information, doping-related experiences, Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale (PEAS), Perfectionism in Sports Scale (PSS; coach's criticism, concern over mistakes, and personal standards), and Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire-2 (PMCSQ-2; ego-involving and task-involving climates). Pearson's correlation coefficients were used to identify correlations among PEAS, PSS, and PMCSQ-2 scores, and stepwise multiple linear regression was performed to investigate possible factors significantly associated with attitudes towards doping., Results: The coach's criticism of PSS was slightly or weakly related to the concern over mistakes of PSS and the ego-involving climate of PMCSQ-2, respectively. And the concern over mistakes sub-scale of perfectionism was related to attitudes towards doping, but weakly., Conclusions: Effective anti-doping policy should meet athletes' perfectionism, and more studies that identify other factors that influence athletes' doping attitudes are needed.

Background: The sanction that an athlete receives when an anti-doping rule violation has been committed depends on the specific circumstances of the case. Anti-doping tribunals decide on the final sanction, following the rules of the World Anti-Doping Code., Objectives: To assess the athletes' degree of fault based on the length of sanctions imposed on them to feed policy-related discussions., Methods: Analysing data from the results management database of the World Anti-Doping Agency for anonymous information of anti-doping rule violations in eight selected sports covering the years 2010-2012., Results: Four out of ten athletes who committed an anti-doping rule violation received a suspension that was lower than the standard. This is an indication that tribunals in many instances are not convinced that the athletes concerned were completely at fault, that mitigating circumstances were applicable, or that full responsibility of the suspected violation should not be held against them. Anabolic agents, peptide hormones, and hormone modulators lead to higher sanctions, as do combinations of several anti-doping rule violations., Conclusions: This first analysis of information from the World Anti-Doping Agency's results management database indicates that a large proportion of the athletes who commit anti-doping rule violations may have done this unintentionally. Anti-doping professionals should strive to improve this situation in various ways.

Purpose: We investigated associations between athletes' use of sport supplements and their responsiveness to placebo and nocebo interventions., Methods: Participants (n = 627) reported their intention to use, and actual use of, sport supplements. They then completed a 5 × 20 m repeat sprint protocol in the baseline condition, before being randomized to one of three treatments. Participants in the positive-belief treatment were administered an inert capsule described as a potent supplement which would improve sprint performance. Participants in the negative-belief treatment were administered an inert capsule described as a potent supplement which would negatively affect sprint performance. Participants in the control treatment received neither instruction nor capsule. Twenty minutes after baseline trials, all participants completed the same repeat sprint protocol in the experimental condition., Results: Compared with controls, no mean differences in performance were observed between baseline and experimental conditions for the positive-belief treatment (-0.07% ± 0.27%, d = 0.02), but mean differences were observed for the negative-belief treatment (-0.92% ± 0.31%, d = 0.32), suggesting a moderate nocebo effect. In the positive-belief treatment, however, a relationship between intention to use supplements and performance was observed. Performance worsened by -1.10% ± 0.30% compared with baseline for participants not intending to use supplements, worsened by -0.64% ± 0.43% among those undecided about supplement use, but improved by 0.19% ± 0.24% among those participants intending to use supplements., Conclusions: Information about a harmful supplement worsened repeat sprint performance (a mean nocebo effect), whereas information about a beneficial supplement did not improve performance (no mean placebo effect was observed). However, participants' intention to use sport supplements influenced the direction and magnitude of subsequent placebo responses, with participants intending to use supplements more likely to respond to the positive intervention.

In this study, we integrated elements of social cognitive theory of moral thought and action and the social cognitive model of moral identity to better understand doping likelihood in athletes. Participants (N = 398) recruited from a variety of team sports completed measures of moral identity, moral disengagement, anticipated guilt, and doping likelihood. Moral identity predicted doping likelihood indirectly via moral disengagement and anticipated guilt. Anticipated guilt about potential doping mediated the relationship between moral disengagement and doping likelihood. Our findings provide novel evidence to suggest that athletes, who feel that being a moral person is central to their self-concept, are less likely to use banned substances due to their lower tendency to morally disengage and the more intense feelings of guilt they expect to experience for using banned substances.

To inform anti-doping policy and practice, it is important to understand the complexities of doping. The purpose of this study was to collate and systematically examine the reasoned decisions published by UK Anti-Doping for doping sanctions in rugby union in the UK since the introduction of the 2009 World Anti-Doping Code. Case files were content analysed to extract demographic information and details relating to the anti-doping rule violation (ADRV), including individuals' explanations for how/why the ADRV occurred. Between 2009 and 2015, 49 rugby union players and one coach from across the UK were sanctioned. Over 50% of the cases involved players under the age of 25, competing at sub-elite levels. Reasons in defence of the ADRV focused on functional use and lifestyle factors rather than performance enhancement. An a priori assessment of the "need", "risk" and "consequence" of using a substance was not commonplace; further strengthening calls for increasing the reach of anti-doping education. The findings also deconstruct the view that "doped" athletes are the same. Consequently, deepening understanding of the social and cultural conditions that encourage doping remains a priority.

Background: The coaching process is complex and dynamic. Coaches are known to affect athlete attitudes indirectly, through athletes' perceptions and interpretations. This process has been verified with a variety of ethical behaviors., Objectives: The current study investigated the relationships between athletes' perceived doping confrontation efficacy of their coaches and athlete's anti-doping attitudes., Methods: A sample of athletes (N = 96) completed a version of the Doping Confrontation Efficacy Scale that was modified to assess their perception of their coaches' anti-doping confrontation efficacy, and the PEAS (Performance Enhancing Attitude Scale), which assessed their performance-enhancing attitudes., Results: The results of a multiple linear regression model showed that perceived confrontation efficacy significantly predicted athletes' anti-doping attitudes. Specifically, the factor of efficacy with respect to intimacy was the sole significant predictor., Conclusions: These results show that a pattern of athletes' interpretation of coaches' values is related to their own attitudes, much like with cheating and sportsmanship. This finding is consistent with the conceptualization of confrontation in general independent of sport.