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This study examined the attentional demands of movement sequence representations at different temporal points after single- or dual-task practice. The visual-spatial representation encodes the movement based on visual-spatial coordinates such as the target locations. The motor representation encodes the movement in motor coordinates including joint angles and muscle activation patterns. Participants were randomly assigned to a single-task or dual-task practice group. Following acquisition, participants performed two retention tests and inter-manual transfer tests, both under dual-task and single-task. The transfer tests consisted of a mirror and non-mirror test and examined motor and visual-spatial representation development. The main finding is that attentional demands of the sequence representations were not affected by the practice condition. However, movement initiation requires more attention than the end of the movement in both representations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aging contributes significantly to cognitive decline. Aerobic exercise (AE) has been shown to induce substantial neuroplasticity changes, enhancing cognitive and brain health. Likewise, recent research underscores the cognitive benefits of foreign language learning (FLL), indicating improvements in brain structure and function across age groups. However, the lack of a comprehensive paradigm integrating language learning with exercise limits research on combined effects in older adults. In order to address this gap, we devised a novel approach using a virtual world tourism scenario for auditory-based language learning combined with aerobic cycling. Our study examines the impact of simultaneous AE and FLL integration on cognitive and language learning outcomes compared to FLL alone. A total of 20 older adults were randomly assigned to AE + FLL and FLL-only groups. The results revealed significantly improved Spanish language learning outcomes in both combined and language learning-only groups. Additionally, significant cognitive function improvement was observed in the FLL group following short-term language learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Balancing is a very important skill, supporting many daily life activities. Cognitivemotor interference (CMI) dual-tasking paradigms have been established to identify the cognitive load of complex natural motor tasks, such as running and cycling. Here we used wireless, smartphone-recorded electroencephalography (EEG) and motion sensors while participants were either standing on firm ground or on a slackline, either performing an auditory oddball task (dualtask condition) or no task simultaneously (single-task condition). We expected a reduced amplitude and increased latency of the P3 event-related potential (ERP) component to target sounds for the complex balancing compared to the standing on ground condition, and a further decrease in the dual-task compared to the single-task balancing condition. Further, we expected greater postural sway during slacklining while performing the concurrent auditory attention task. Twenty young, experienced slackliners performed an auditory oddball task, silently counting rare target tones presented in a series of frequently occurring standard tones. Results revealed similar P3 topographies and morphologies during both movement conditions. Contrary to our predictions we observed neither significantly reduced P3 amplitudes, nor significantly increased latencies during slacklining. Unexpectedly, we found greater postural sway during slacklining with no additional task compared to dual-tasking. Further, we found a significant correlation between the participant's skill level and P3 latency, but not between skill level and P3 amplitude or postural sway. This pattern of results indicates an interference effect for less skilled individuals, whereas individuals with a high skill level may have shown a facilitation effect. Our study adds to the growing field of research demonstrating that ERPs obtained in uncontrolled, daily-life situations can provide meaningful results. We argue that the individual CMI effects on the P3 ERP reflects how demanding the balancing task is for untrained individuals, which draws on limited resources that are otherwise available for auditory attention processing. In future work, the analysis of concurrently recorded motion-sensor signals will help to identify the cognitive demands of motor tasks executed in natural, uncontrolled environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

FXTAS is a neurodegenerative disorder occurring in some Fragile X Messenger Ribonucleoprotein 1 (FMR1) gene premutation carriers (PMCs) and is characterized by cerebellar ataxia, tremor, and cognitive deficits that negatively impact balance and gait and increase fall risk. Dual-tasking (DT) cognitive-motor paradigms and challenging balance conditions may have the capacity to reveal markers of FXTAS onset. Our objectives were to determine the impact of dual-tasking and sensory and stance manipulation on balance in FXTAS and potentially detect subtle postural sway deficits in FMR1 PMCs who are asymptomatic for signs of FXTAS on clinical exam. Participants with FXTAS, PMCs without FXTAS, and controls underwent balance testing using an inertial sensor system. Stance, vision, surface stability, and cognitive demand were manipulated in 30 s trials. FXTAS participants had significantly greater total sway area, jerk, and RMS sway than controls under almost all balance conditions but were most impaired in those requiring vestibular control. PMCs without FXTAS had significantly greater RMS sway compared with controls in the feet apart, firm, single task conditions both with eyes open and closed (EC) and the feet together, firm, EC, DT condition. Postural sway deficits in the RMS postural sway variability domain in asymptomatic PMCs might represent prodromal signs of FXTAS. This information may be useful in providing sensitive biomarkers of FXTAS onset and as quantitative balance measures in future interventional trials and longitudinal natural history studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous studies have examined executive function (EF) abilities in cognitively healthy older adults and those living with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Currently, there are no standard accepted protocols for testing specific EFs; thus, researchers have used their preferred tool, which leads to variability in assessments of decline in a particular ability across studies. Therefore, there is a need for guidance as to themost sensitive tests for assessing EF decline. A search of the most current literature published between 2000 and 2022 on EF studies assessing cognitively healthy older adults and individuals living with MCI and AD was conducted using PubMed/Medline, PsycINFO, Embase, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Emphasis was placed on the EF's dual-tasking, inhibition, shifting or switching, and working memory updating. Many tasks and their outcomes were reviewed. Of particular importance was the difference in outcomes for tasks applied to the same group of participants. These various EF assessment tools demonstrate differences in effectively identifying decline in EF ability due to the aging process and neurodegenerative conditions, such as MCI and AD. This review identifies various factors to consider in using particular EF tasks in particular populations, including task demand and stimuli factors, and also when comparing differing results across studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) demonstrate deficits in predictive motor control and aspects of cognitive control compared with their typically developing (TD) peers. Adjustment to dynamic environments depends on both aspects of control and the deficits for children with DCD may constrain their ability to perform daily actions that involve dualtasking. Under the assumption that motor-cognitive integration is compromised in children with DCD, we examined proportional dual-task costs using a novel locomotor-cognitive dual-task paradigm that enlisted augmented reality. We expect proportional dual-task performance costs to be greater for children with DCD compared to their TD peers. Methods: Participants were 34 children aged 6-12 years (16 TD, 18 DCD) who walked along a straight 12 m path under single- and dual-task conditions, the cognitive task being visual discrimination under simple or complex stimulus conditions presented via augmented reality. Dual-task performance was measured in two ways: first, proportional dual-task costs (pDTC) were computed for cognitive and gait outcomes and, second, within-trial costs (p- WTC) were measured as the difference on gait outcomes between pre- and post-stimulus presentation. Results: On measures of pDTC, TD children increased their double-limb support time when walking in response to a dual-task, while the children with DCD increased their locomotor velocity. On p-WTC, both groups increased their gait variability (step length and step width) when walking in response to a dual-task, of which the TD group had a larger proportional change than the DCD group. Greater pDTCs on motor rather than cognitive outcomes were consistent across groups and method of dual-task performance measurement. Discussion: Contrary to predictions, our results failed to support dramatic differences in locomotor-cognitive dual-task performance between children with DCD and TD, with both groups tending to priorities the cognitive over the motor task. Inclusion of a within-trial calculation of dual-task interference revealed an expectancy effect for both groups in relation to an impending visual stimulus. It is recommended that dual-task paradigms in the future continue to use augmented reality to present the cognitive task and consider motor tasks of sufficient complexity to probe the limits of performance in children with DCD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The way bilinguals switch languages can differ depending on the context. In cued dual-language environments, bilinguals select a language in response to environmental cues (e.g., a monolingual conversation partner). In voluntary dual-language environments, bilinguals communicating with people who speak the same languages can use their languages more freely. The control demands of these types of language-production contexts, and the costs of language switches, have been argued to differ (Adaptive Control Hypothesis). Here, we used a dual-task paradigm to examine how cued and voluntary bilingual production differ in cognitive resources used. Forty Mandarin-English bilinguals completed two language-switching paradigms as the primary task; one in response to cues and one while using two languages freely. At the same time, they also had to respond to the pitch of tones (secondary task). Response times (RTs) on the secondary task, as well as naming times on the primary task, were shorter under the voluntary- than cued-naming condition. Task workload ratings were also higher under the cued- than voluntary-naming condition. This suggests more attentional resources are needed in a cued-naming context to monitor cues and select languages accordingly. However, the costs associated with switching from one language to the other were similar in both voluntary- and cued-naming contexts. Thus, while cued-naming might be more effortful overall, cued and voluntary switching recruited similar levels of cognitive resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When two speeded tasks have spatially overlapping responses, preactivated Task 2 (T2) response information influences Task 1 (T1) response selection, a phenomenon known as the backward crosstalk effect (BCE). Current models of the BCE implicitly assume that T2 response information is equally present in trials requiring compatible or incompatible responses, such that T1 performance improves when T2 requires a compatible response and deteriorates when T2 requires an incompatible response. Thus, T2 response information should have a facilitatory and an interfering effect on T1. Interestingly, this hypothesis has never been tested, and the present study (conducted between 2021 and 2023) attempts to fill this gap by using neutral trials in which T2 responses did not spatially overlap with those in T1. The results suggest that the BCE (in T1) reflects both facilitation and interference effects of comparable magnitude, thus corroborating current conceptualizations of the BCE. We also observed an unexpected pattern of effects for T2, with only an interference effect, but no facilitation effect. Additional experiments led us to conclude that the T2 result was sensitive to the specific task characteristics. Conclusions about how the crosstalk transfers from T1 to T2 when switching tasks are therefore not possible. Public Significance Statement: This study shows that when people face a situation with multiple task demands, they can experience either performance benefits or performance decrements in the first task, depending on whether the subsequent task provides equivalent or opposite response information. Interestingly, the magnitude of performance benefits is comparable to the magnitude of performance decrements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evidence suggests falls and postural instabilities among seniors are attributed to a decline in both the processing of afferent signals (e.g., proprioceptive, vestibular) and attentional resources. We investigated the interaction between the non-visual and attentional demands of postural control in sedentary seniors. Old and young adults performed a postural stability limit task involving a maximal voluntary leaning movement with and without vision as well as a cognitive-attentional subtraction task. These tasks were performed alone (single-task) or simultaneously (dual-task) to vary the sensory-attentional demands. The functional limits of stability were quantified as the maximum center of pressure excursion during voluntary leaning. Seniors showed significantly smaller limits of postural stability compared to young adults in all sensory-attentional conditions. However, surprisingly, both groups of subjects reduced their stability limits by a similar amount when vision was removed. Furthermore, they similarly decreased their anterior-posterior stability limits when concurrently performing the postural and the cognitive-attentional tasks with vision. The overall average cognitive performance of young adults was higher than seniors and was only slightly affected during dual-tasking. In contrast, older adults markedly degraded their cognitive performance from the single- to the dual-task situations, especially when vision was unavailable. Thus, their dual-task costs were higher than those of young adults and increased in the eyes-closed condition, when postural control relied more heavily on non-visual sensory signals. Our findings provide the first evidence that as posture approaches its stability limits, sedentary seniors allot increasingly large cognitive attentional resources to process critical sensory inputs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Divided attention is commonly required in daily life, and to prevent falls, balance must be recovered when a person experiences unexpected perturbations. Previous studies have shown that additional cognitive tasks in postural responses negatively affect automatic postural responses. However, the effect of dual-tasking on reactive stepping performance is still not clearly understood. This study investigated the effect of dual-tasking on reactive stepping induced by a large perturbation in older adults and characterized the effect of dual-tasking by comparison with young adults. How does the effect of dual-tasking on reactive stepping performance differ between young and older adults? Twenty-nine older adults and twenty-two young adults were prospectively exposed to external perturbations to induce forward reactive steps. Perturbations were delivered under simple front fixed gaze (single-task condition) and modified Stroop task (dual-task condition). Measures of the time to foot-off and reach stability, step length, velocity, and number of steps were based on force plate data for both the single- and dual-task conditions. Young and older adults showed a delay in foot-off time during the dual-task condition compared with that during the single-task condition. The reach stability time, step length, and number of steps were worse in the dual-task condition than in the single-task condition for older adults, but not for young adults. The deficits in reactive stepping performance during dual-tasking could reflect the reactive balance capacity in real life. The findings of this study highlight the increased risk of falls with age. • We evaluated the effect of dual-tasking on reactive stepping. • Young and older adults showed a delay in foot off in dual task conditions. • Older adults exhibited delays in reaching stability and increase number of steps with dual-tasking, but not young adults. • Dual-tasking effects on reactive stepping performance differ according to age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigated the cognitive processing architecture of dual(-memory) retrieval from a single cue across two distinct age groups: younger and older adults. Previous research has shown that younger adults can exhibit learned parallel retrieval, but only if they synchronize response execution. This phenomenon has not been demonstrated with older adults. Experiment 1 functioned as an extension of previous studies to assess whether the finding of learned retrieval parallelism in younger adults could be observed in older adults as well. The experiment used a dual retrieval task that involved the retrieval of two responses, one vocal and one keypress, from a single cue. Experiment 2 further assessed whether the cognitive processing architecture underlying the occurrence of learned retrieval parallelism in dual memory retrieval could be influenced by the number of cues in single-retrieval practice. The results of both experiments showed that learned retrieval parallelism occurs in older as well as younger adults and that the processing mechanisms involved in dual memory retrieval are relatively stable across age groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Balancing is a very important skill, supporting many daily life activities. Cognitive-motor interference (CMI) dual-tasking paradigms have been established to identify the cognitive load of complex natural motor tasks, such as running and cycling. Here we used wireless, smartphone-recorded electroencephalography (EEG) and motion sensors while participants were either standing on firm ground or on a slackline, either performing an auditory oddball task (dual-task condition) or no task simultaneously (single-task condition). We expected a reduced amplitude and increased latency of the P3 event-related potential (ERP) component to target sounds for the complex balancing compared to the standing on ground condition, and a further decrease in the dual-task compared to the single-task balancing condition. Further, we expected greater postural sway during slacklining while performing the concurrent auditory attention task. Twenty young, experienced slackliners performed an auditory oddball task, silently counting rare target tones presented in a series of frequently occurring standard tones. Results revealed similar P3 topographies and morphologies during both movement conditions. Contrary to our predictions we observed neither significantly reduced P3 amplitudes, nor significantly increased latencies during slacklining. Unexpectedly, we found greater postural sway during slacklining with no additional task compared to dual-tasking. Further, we found a significant correlation between the participant’s skill level and P3 latency, but not between skill level and P3 amplitude or postural sway. This pattern of results indicates an interference effect for less skilled individuals, whereas individuals with a high skill level may have shown a facilitation effect. Our study adds to the growing field of research demonstrating that ERPs obtained in uncontrolled, daily-life situations can provide meaningful results. We argue that the individual CMI effects on the P3 ERP reflects how demanding the balancing task is for untrained individuals, which draws on limited resources that are otherwise available for auditory attention processing. In future work, the analysis of concurrently recorded motion-sensor signals will help to identify the cognitive demands of motor tasks executed in natural, uncontrolled environments.

When performing two tasks at the same time, the congruency of the second task's features influences performance in the first task. This is called the backward crosstalk effect (BCE), a phenomenon that influences both theories of binding and of dual-task capacity limitations. The question of whether the BCE is found in all participants at all times is relevant for understanding the basis of the effect. For example, if the BCE is based on strategic choices, it can be variable, but if it is automatic and involuntary, it should never vary in whether it is present or not. Variability in observed BCE sizes was already documented and discussed when the group average effect was first reported (Hommel, 1998). Yet the theories discussed at the time did not motivate a more direct analysis of this variability, nor did the readily available statistical tools permit it.Some statistical approaches recently applied in cognitive psychology allow such a variability-focused analysis and some more recent theoretical debates would benefit from this as well. We assessed the variability of the BCE as well as a BCE-like free-choice congruency effect by applying a Bayesian multilevel modeling approach to the data from a dual-tasking experiment. Trials consisted of a two- and a four-response task. We manipulated which task was presented first and whether the response to the four-choice task was free or forced choice.RT data were best predicted by a model in which the BCE is zero in part of the population and drawn from a normal distribution truncated at zero (and thus always positive) in the rest of the population. Choice congruency bias data were best predicted by a model assuming this effect to be drawn from a normal distribution truncated at zero (but, in contrast to the RT data, without the subset of the population where it is zero).The BCE is not an inflexible and universal phenomenon that is directly linked to an inherent structural trait of human cognition. We discuss theoretical constraints implied by these results with a focus on what we can infer about the traits of the factors that influence BCE size. We suggest that future research might add further major constraints by using multi-session experiments to distinguish between-person and within-person variability. Our results show that the BCE is variable. The next step is understanding along which axes it is variable and why it varies.

In cognitive-motor dual-task situations, the extent of performance decrements is influenced by the attentional requirements of each task. Well-learned motor skills should be automatized, leading to less interference. This study presents two studies combining an episodic memory encoding task with well-practiced motor tasks in athletes. Study 1 asked 40 rowers (early teenagers to middle adulthood) to row on ergometers at slow or fast speeds. In study 2, Taekwondo athletes (n = 37) of different skill levels performed a well-practiced sequence of martial arts movements. Performing the motor task during encoding led to pronounced performance reductions in memory in both studies, with costs of up to 80%. Cognitive costs were even larger when rowing with the fast compared to the slow speed in study 1. Both studies also revealed decrements in motor performances under dual-task conditions: Rowing became slower and more irregular (study 1), and the quality of the Taekwondo performance was reduced. Although higher-level athletes outperformed others in motor skills under single-task conditions, proportional dual-task costs were similar across skill levels for most domains. This indicates that even well-practiced motor tasks require cognitive resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Descending stairs is an indicator of independence among stroke survivors, but is demanding in terms of both neuromuscular control and cognitive functioning. Previous studies found a compromised performance when stepping down with a concurrent cognitive task among healthy older adults, but whether stroke survivors react similarly is not known. This cross-sectional study thus investigated how stroke survivors responded to a dual-task that involved stepping down and compared their performance with that of control subjects. Thirty-four healthy individuals and 26 stroke survivors reacted to an auditory Stroop test while stepping off a 19-cm high platform. The auditory Stroop test was evaluated with a composite score (dividing accuracy by averaged reaction time). Stepping down performances were quantified with subjects' sway amplitudes in anteroposterior and mediolateral directions after landing and sway velocities of their center of pressure. Stroke survivors demonstrated significantly lower composite scores when dual-tasking (76.4 ± 31.2) than when single-tasking (90.0 ± 25.6), while no significant change in stepping down performance was observed. Stroke survivors also swayed significantly more and with a higher velocity than controls when dual-tasking. The results suggested that stroke survivors adopted a posture-first strategy to deal with this dual-tasking challenge. This study raised the awareness on dual-tasking ability among stroke survivors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous studies have examined executive function (EF) abilities in cognitively healthy older adults and those living with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Currently, there are no standard accepted protocols for testing specific EFs; thus, researchers have used their preferred tool, which leads to variability in assessments of decline in a particular ability across studies. Therefore, there is a need for guidance as to the most sensitive tests for assessing EF decline. A search of the most current literature published between 2000 and 2022 on EF studies assessing cognitively healthy older adults and individuals living with MCI and AD was conducted using PubMed/Medline, PsycINFO, Embase, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Emphasis was placed on the EF's dual-tasking, inhibition, shifting or switching, and working memory updating. Many tasks and their outcomes were reviewed. Of particular importance was the difference in outcomes for tasks applied to the same group of participants. These various EF assessment tools demonstrate differences in effectively identifying decline in EF ability due to the aging process and neurodegenerative conditions, such as MCI and AD. This review identifies various factors to consider in using particular EF tasks in particular populations, including task demand and stimuli factors, and also when comparing differing results across studies.

IntroductionChildren with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) demonstrate deficits in predictive motor control and aspects of cognitive control compared with their typically developing (TD) peers. Adjustment to dynamic environments depends on both aspects of control and the deficits for children with DCD may constrain their ability to perform daily actions that involve dual-tasking. Under the assumption that motor-cognitive integration is compromised in children with DCD, we examined proportional dual-task costs using a novel locomotor-cognitive dual-task paradigm that enlisted augmented reality. We expect proportional dual-task performance costs to be greater for children with DCD compared to their TD peers.MethodsParticipants were 34 children aged 6–12 years (16 TD, 18 DCD) who walked along a straight 12 m path under single- and dual-task conditions, the cognitive task being visual discrimination under simple or complex stimulus conditions presented via augmented reality. Dual-task performance was measured in two ways: first, proportional dual-task costs (pDTC) were computed for cognitive and gait outcomes and, second, within-trial costs (p-WTC) were measured as the difference on gait outcomes between pre- and post-stimulus presentation.ResultsOn measures of pDTC, TD children increased their double-limb support time when walking in response to a dual-task, while the children with DCD increased their locomotor velocity. On p-WTC, both groups increased their gait variability (step length and step width) when walking in response to a dual-task, of which the TD group had a larger proportional change than the DCD group. Greater pDTCs on motor rather than cognitive outcomes were consistent across groups and method of dual-task performance measurement.DiscussionContrary to predictions, our results failed to support dramatic differences in locomotor-cognitive dual-task performance between children with DCD and TD, with both groups tending to priorities the cognitive over the motor task. Inclusion of a within-trial calculation of dual-task interference revealed an expectancy effect for both groups in relation to an impending visual stimulus. It is recommended that dual-task paradigms in the future continue to use augmented reality to present the cognitive task and consider motor tasks of sufficient complexity to probe the limits of performance in children with DCD.

Aging contributes significantly to cognitive decline. Aerobic exercise (AE) has been shown to induce substantial neuroplasticity changes, enhancing cognitive and brain health. Likewise, recent research underscores the cognitive benefits of foreign language learning (FLL), indicating improvements in brain structure and function across age groups. However, the lack of a comprehensive paradigm integrating language learning with exercise limits research on combined effects in older adults. In order to address this gap, we devised a novel approach using a virtual world tourism scenario for auditory-based language learning combined with aerobic cycling. Our study examines the impact of simultaneous AE and FLL integration on cognitive and language learning outcomes compared to FLL alone. A total of 20 older adults were randomly assigned to AE + FLL and FLL-only groups. The results revealed significantly improved Spanish language learning outcomes in both combined and language learning-only groups. Additionally, significant cognitive function improvement was observed in the FLL group following short-term language learning.

FXTAS is a neurodegenerative disorder occurring in some Fragile X Messenger Ribonucleoprotein 1 (FMR1) gene premutation carriers (PMCs) and is characterized by cerebellar ataxia, tremor, and cognitive deficits that negatively impact balance and gait and increase fall risk. Dual-tasking (DT) cognitive-motor paradigms and challenging balance conditions may have the capacity to reveal markers of FXTAS onset. Our objectives were to determine the impact of dual-tasking and sensory and stance manipulation on balance in FXTAS and potentially detect subtle postural sway deficits in FMR1 PMCs who are asymptomatic for signs of FXTAS on clinical exam. Participants with FXTAS, PMCs without FXTAS, and controls underwent balance testing using an inertial sensor system. Stance, vision, surface stability, and cognitive demand were manipulated in 30 s trials. FXTAS participants had significantly greater total sway area, jerk, and RMS sway than controls under almost all balance conditions but were most impaired in those requiring vestibular control. PMCs without FXTAS had significantly greater RMS sway compared with controls in the feet apart, firm, single task conditions both with eyes open and closed (EC) and the feet together, firm, EC, DT condition. Postural sway deficits in the RMS postural sway variability domain in asymptomatic PMCs might represent prodromal signs of FXTAS. This information may be useful in providing sensitive biomarkers of FXTAS onset and as quantitative balance measures in future interventional trials and longitudinal natural history studies.

In cognitive–motor dual-task situations, the extent of performance decrements is influenced by the attentional requirements of each task. Well-learned motor skills should be automatized, leading to less interference. This study presents two studies combining an episodic memory encoding task with well-practiced motor tasks in athletes. Study 1 asked 40 rowers (early teenagers to middle adulthood) to row on ergometers at slow or fast speeds. In study 2, Taekwondo athletes (n = 37) of different skill levels performed a well-practiced sequence of martial arts movements. Performing the motor task during encoding led to pronounced performance reductions in memory in both studies, with costs of up to 80%. Cognitive costs were even larger when rowing with the fast compared to the slow speed in study 1. Both studies also revealed decrements in motor performances under dual-task conditions: Rowing became slower and more irregular (study 1), and the quality of the Taekwondo performance was reduced. Although higher-level athletes outperformed others in motor skills under single-task conditions, proportional dual-task costs were similar across skill levels for most domains. This indicates that even well-practiced motor tasks require cognitive resources.

Background Neuromuscular dysfunction is common in older adults and more pronounced in neurodegenerative diseases. In Parkinson's disease (PD), a complex set of factors often prevents the effective performance of activities of daily living that require intact and simultaneous performance of the motor and cognitive tasks. Methods The cross-sectional study includes a multifactorial mixed-measure design. Between-subject factor grouping the sample will be Parkinson’s Disease (early PD vs. healthy). The within-subject factors will be the task complexity (single- vs. dual-task) in each motor activity, i.e., overground walking, semi-tandem stance, and isometric knee extension, and a walking condition (wide vs. narrow lane) will be implemented for the overground walking activity only. To study dual-task (DT) effects, in each motor activity participants will be given a secondary cognitive task, i.e., a visual discrimination task for the overground walking, an attention task for the semi-tandem, and mental arithmetic for the isometric extension. Analyses of DT effects and underlying neuronal correlates will focus on both gait and cognitive performance where applicable. Based on an a priori sample size calculation, a total N = 42 older adults (55–75 years) will be recruited. Disease-specific changes such as laterality in motor unit behavior and cortical control of movement will be studied with high-density surface electromyography and electroencephalography during static and dynamic motor activities, together with whole-body kinematics. Discussion This study will be one of the first to holistically address early PD neurophysiological and neuromuscular patterns in an ecologically valid environment under cognitive-motor DT conditions of different complexities. The outcomes of the study aim to identify the biomarker for early PD either at the electrophysiological, muscular or kinematic level or in the communication between these systems. Clinical Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.Gov, NCT05477654. This study was approved by the Medical Ethical Committee (106/2021).

We expand the usually cross-sectional perspective on dual-tasking performance to include both intra- and interpersonal variability, which should capture within-person dynamics and psychological processes better. Two simple tasks, first as single-, then as dual-tasks, were performed by 58 participants over 20 sessions. We found positive relationships between (1) single- and dual-tasking performance and (2) the dual-task component tasks both inter- and intrapersonally. Better single-taskers were better dual-taskers and better single-tasking sessions were better dual-tasking sessions. This implies shared capacities that covary both inter- and intraindividually. We conclude that taking intra- and interpersonal variability into account is a promising future perspective.

Reactive balance is postulated to be attentionally demanding, although it has been underexamined in dual-tasking (DT) conditions. Further, DT studies have mainly included only one cognitive task, leaving it unknown how different cognitive domains contribute to reactive balance. This study examined how DT affected reactive responses to large-magnitude perturbations and compared cognitive-motor interference (CMI) between cognitive tasks. A total of 20 young adults aged 18–35 (40% female; 25.6 ± 3.8 y) were exposed to treadmill support surface perturbations alone (single-task (ST)) and while completing four cognitive tasks: Target, Track, Auditory Clock Test (ACT), Letter Number Sequencing (LNS). Three perturbations were delivered over 30 s in each trial. Cognitive tasks were also performed while seated and standing (ST). Compared to ST, post-perturbation MOS was lower when performing Track, and cognitive performance was reduced on the Target task during DT (p < 0.05). There was a larger decline in overall (cognitive + motor) performance from ST for both of the visuomotor tasks compared to the ACT and LNS (p < 0.05). The highest CMI was observed for visuomotor tasks; real-life visuomotor tasks could increase fall risk during daily living, especially for individuals with difficulty attending to more than one task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dual-tasking can cause cognitive–motor interference (CMI) and affect task performance. This study investigated the effects of age, gait speed, and type of cognitive task on CMI during gait. Ten younger and 10 older adults walked on a pressure-sensitive GAITRite walkway which recorded gait speed and step length. Participants walked at a slow, preferred, or fast speed while simultaneously completing four cognitive tasks: visuomotor reaction time (VMRT), serial subtraction (SS), word list generation (WLG), and visual Stroop (VS). Each combination of task and speed was repeated for two trials. Tasks were also performed while standing. Motor and cognitive costs were calculated with the formula: ((single-dual)/single × 100). Higher costs indicate a larger reduction in performance from single to dual-task. Motor costs were higher for WLG and SS than VMRT and VS and higher in older adults (p < 0.05). Cognitive costs were higher for SS than WLG (p = 0.001). At faster speeds, dual-task costs increased for WLG and SS, although decreased for VMRT. CMI was highest for working memory, language, and problem-solving tasks, which was reduced by slow walking. Aging increased CMI, although both ages were affected similarly by task and speed. Dual-task assessments could include challenging CMI conditions to improve the prediction of motor and cognitive status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whether pragmatic inferences are cognitively more effortful than processing literal language has been a longstanding question in pragmatics. So far, experimental studies have exclusively tested generalized (scalar) implicatures. Current theories would predict that particularized implicatures should be cognitively effortful – however, this prediction has to date not been tested empirically. The present article contributes to the debate by investigating a specific type of particularized implicature, atypicality inferences, in a dual-task paradigm. In three experiments, we used either a non-linguistic (Experiment 1) or a linguistic (Experiments 2 and 3) secondary task, to modulate the amount of available cognitive resources. Our results show that the strength of pragmatic inferences is largely unaffected by the secondary task, which contrasts with prior predictions. We discuss the implications for traditional and modern accounts of pragmatic processing. • This article studies the cost associated with processing of inferences triggered by informational redundancy. • A dual-task paradigm is used to modulate the load. • Contrary to theoretical predictions, the inferences are unaffected by the cognitive load coming from a secondary task. • One experiment showed a reduction in performance on the secondary task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently there still remains a critical need of human involvements for multi-robot system (MRS) to successfully perform their missions in real-world applications, and the hand-controller has been commonly used for the operator to input MRS control commands. However, in more challenging scenarios involving concurrent MRS control and system monitoring tasks, where the operator’s both hands are busy, the hand-controller alone is inadequate for effective human-MRS interaction. To this end, our study takes a first step toward a multimodal interface by extending the hand-controller with a hands-free input based on gaze and brain-computer interface (BCI), i.e., a hybrid gaze-BCI. Specifically, the velocity control function is still designated to the hand-controller that excels at inputting continuous velocity commands for MRS, while the formation control function is realized with a more intuitive hybrid gaze-BCI, rather than with the hand-controller via a less natural mapping. In a dual-task experimental paradigm that simulated the hands-occupied manipulation condition in real-world applications, operators achieved improved performance for controlling simulated MRS (average formation inputting accuracy increases 3%, average finishing time decreases 5 s), reduced cognitive load (average reaction time for secondary task decreases 0.32 s) and perceived workload (average rating score decreases 15.84) with the hand-controller extended by the hybrid gaze-BCI, over those with the hand-controller alone. These findings reveal the potential of the hands-free hybrid gaze-BCI to extend the traditional manual MRS input devices for creating a more operator-friendly interface, in challenging hands-occupied dual-tasking scenarios.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between event-related potential (ERP) P300 with cognitive function in people with diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN). Methods: We performed a cross-sectional analysis of 19 type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients, aged 18 and older with DPN. The participants were assessed for neuropathy, cognitive function, & dual-task performance. DPN was examined via the administration of diabetic neuropathy symptom score (DNSS) and vibration perception threshold (VPT). Cognitive dysfunction was evaluated using Mini-mental state examination (MMSE), trail making test-B (TMT-B), and ERP P300 wave latency & amplitude. For assessing dual-task performance, the dual-task cost (DTC) was calculated using the timed-up and go (TUG) test and TUG with dual task (TUG-DT). Results: P300 latency was linearly related to TMT-B (R = 0.31, p = 0.01) and DTC (R = 0.22, p = 0.04). A similar trend was observed in TMT-B (R = 0.13, p = 0.04) & DTC (R =0.67, p = 0.001) with respect to P300 amplitude. MMSE did not relate with P300 latency (R = 0.14, p = 0.58) & amplitude (R = 0.63, p =.44). Conclusion: P300 latency and amplitude are associated with cognitive function and DTC of individuals with DPN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Visuomotor dual-tasking caused poorer driving in all age groups. • This deterioration in driving performance worsened with increasing age. • Higher midfrontal theta power when dual-tasking indicated increased cognitive control. • The less distinct theta increase with aging implied a possible saturation of mental resources. • Lateral vehicle control did not deteriorate in the presence of a visuocognitive task. Driving is a complex activity, entailing concurrent preparation and execution of motor behavior, and processing of cognitive information. Dual-tasking often leads to performance decrements, especially when the subtasks require similar neural resources, e.g., controlling the steering wheel, handling the pedals and shifting gears. With higher age, the ability to simultaneously perform different tasks deteriorates, as more mental resources are required for accurate coordination of movements. Therefore, using electroencephalography, we measured the neural correlates of dual-task driving in 81 healthy younger (n = 27), middle-aged (n = 25) and older adults (n = 29). A visuocognitive and a visuomotor dual-task were combined with a simulated lane-keeping task, with the latter dual-task requiring more similar resources. As expected, steering precision decreased to a higher extent when combined with a visuomotor dual-task in all participants, compared to no deterioration in the visuocognitive dual-task. Yet, this visuomotor dual-task performance decrease was more prominent with increasing age. Remarkably, although midfrontal theta power increased in all groups when a visuomotor dual-task was added, indicating the recruitment of additional mental resources, this increase was less prominent for middle-aged and older adults. This could signify a plateau effect of theta power in which a saturation of mental resources is reached, leading to an increased dual-task cost. Therefore, reducing driver task demands by limiting the need for motor control processing, e.g., by switching to automatic gear shifting, could be beneficial for driving safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A long-standing question in language understanding iswhether pragmatic inferences are effortful or whether theyhappen seamlessly without measurable cognitive effort. Wehere measure the strength of particularized pragmatic infer-ences in a setting with high vs. low cognitive load. Cognitiveload is induced by a secondary dot tracking task. If this type ofpragmatic inference comes at no cognitive processing cost, in-ferences should be similarly strong in both the high and the lowload condition. If they are effortful, we expect a smaller effectsize in the dual tasking condition. Our results show that partic-ipants who have difficulty in dual tasking (as evidenced by in-correct answers to comprehension questions) exhibit a smallerpragmatic effect when they were distracted with a secondarytask in comparison to the single task condition. This findingsupports the idea that pragmatic inferences are effortful.

Abstract Background In older adults, the extent to which performing a cognitive task when standing diminishes postural control is predictive of future falls and cognitive decline. The neurophysiology of such “dual-tasking” and its effect on postural control (i.e., dual-task cost) in older adults are poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to use electroencephalography (EEG) to examine the effects of dual-tasking when standing on brain activity in older adults. We hypothesized that compared to single-task “quiet” standing, dual-task standing would decrease alpha power, which has been linked to decreased motor inhibition, as well as increase the ratio of theta to beta power, which has been linked to increased attentional control. Methods Thirty older adults without overt disease completed four separate visits. Postural sway together with EEG (32-channels) were recorded during trials of standing with and without a concurrent verbalized serial subtraction dual-task. Postural control was measured by average sway area, velocity, and path length. EEG metrics included absolute alpha-, theta-, and beta-band powers as well as theta/beta power ratio, within six demarcated regions-of-interest: the left and right anterior, central, and posterior regions of the brain. Results Most EEG metrics demonstrated moderate-to-high between-day test–retest reliability (intra-class correlation coefficients > 0.70). Compared with quiet standing, dual-tasking decreased alpha-band power particularly in the central regions bilaterally (p = 0.002) and increased theta/beta power ratio in the anterior regions bilaterally (p

Abstract Background Multitasking is an essential part of our everyday life, but performance declines typically in older age. Many studies have investigated the beneficial effects of cognitive, motor and combined cognitive-motor training on multitasking performance in older adults. Previous work, however, has not regarded interindividual differences in cognitive functioning and motor fitness that may affect training benefits. The current study aims to identify whether different training programs may have differential effects on multitasking performance depending on the initial level of cognitive functioning and motor fitness. Methods We conduct a 12-week single-blinded randomized controlled trial. A total of N = 150 healthy older adults are assigned to either a single cognitive, a single motor, or a simultaneous cognitive-motor training. Participants are trained twice per week for 45 min. A comprehensive test battery assesses cognitive functions, motor and cardiovascular fitness, and realistic multitasking during walking and driving in two virtual environments. We evaluate how multitasking performance is related not only to the training program, but also to participants’ initial levels of cognitive functioning and motor fitness. Discussion We expect that multitasking performance in participants with lower initial competence in either one or both domains (cognitive functioning, motor fitness) benefits more from single-task training (cognitive training and/or motor training). In contrast, multitasking performance in participants with higher competence in both domains should benefit more from multitask training (simultaneous cognitive-motor training). The results may help to identify whether tailored training is favorable over standardized one-size-fits all training approaches to improve multitasking in older adults. In addition, our findings will advance the understanding of factors that influence training effects on multitasking. Trial registration DRKS (German Clinical Trials Register), DRKS00022407. Registered 26/08/2020 - Retrospectively registered at https://www.drks.de/drks_web/setLocale_EN.do

In the age of digitilization, multitasking requirements are ubiquitous, especially in the workplace. Multitasking (MT) describes the activity of performing multiple (at least two) tasks at the same time. Dual tasking (DT) refers to the sequential switching between two tasks. The aim of our systematic review and meta-analysis was first to investigate whether physiological stress systems become activated in response to or during MT/DT and, second, whether this (re-)activity is higher compared to single tasking. We focused on the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis, and the immune system. The systematic review has been pre-registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020181415). A total of twenty-five articles were identified as eligible, in which n = 26 studies were reported, with N = 1142 participants. Our main findings are that SNS activity is significantly higher and PNS activity is significantly lower during MT/DT than during single tasking. Only two studies were found, in which HPA axis (re-)activity was surveyed. No eligible study was identified in which immune system (re-)activity was investigated. This is the first systematic synthesis of the literature base showing that stress system activity is increased during MT/DT in comparison to single-tasking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently there still remains a critical need of human involvements for multi-robot system (MRS) to successfully perform their missions in real-world applications, and the hand-controller has been commonly used for the operator to input MRS control commands. However, in more challenging scenarios involving concurrent MRS control and system monitoring tasks, where the operator’s both hands are busy, the hand-controller alone is inadequate for effective human-MRS interaction. To this end, our study takes a first step toward a multimodal interface by extending the hand-controller with a hands-free input based on gaze and brain-computer interface (BCI), i.e., a hybrid gaze-BCI. Specifically, the velocity control function is still designated to the hand-controller that excels at inputting continuous velocity commands for MRS, while the formation control function is realized with a more intuitive hybrid gaze-BCI, rather than with the hand-controller via a less natural mapping. In a dual-task experimental paradigm that simulated the hands-occupied manipulation condition in real-world applications, operators achieved improved performance for controlling simulated MRS (average formation inputting accuracy increases 3%, average finishing time decreases 5 s), reduced cognitive load (average reaction time for secondary task decreases 0.32 s) and perceived workload (average rating score decreases 15.84) with the hand-controller extended by the hybrid gaze-BCI, over those with the hand-controller alone. These findings reveal the potential of the hands-free hybrid gaze-BCI to extend the traditional manual MRS input devices for creating a more operator-friendly interface, in challenging hands-occupied dual-tasking scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Age-related changes in dual-task walking are well established, but research in this topic is based on evidence from laboratory rather than real-world studies. We investigated how dual-task walking on real-world surfaces affects young and older adults' gait characteristics and cognitive resource allocation. Method: Sixteen young (aged 19–35, 12 female) and fifteen older adults (aged 70–85, 7 female) with no major neurological or musculoskeletal disorders walked at a self-selected speed on forty-metre outdoor paths that had asphalt or grass surface. They walked with or without a cognitive task (counting backwards). Cognitive task difficulty was individually adjusted at 80 % accuracy. Participants performed the three tasks in Single Task (ST Asphalt, ST Grass, ST Cognitive) and Dual Task context (DT Asphalt-Cognitive, DT Grass-Cognitive). Results: The two groups showed similar dual task effects in cognition and walking speed, both of which were slower when dual-task walking. Older adults' steps were wider overall but only young adults widened their step width when dual-task walking on grass compared to asphalt. Similarly, young adults' step height increased from single to dual-task walking when on grass, where older adults' did not. Discussion: The lack of adaptation of step width and height when dual-task walking may leave older adults vulnerable to tripping or falling in common real-world conditions, such as while walking on grass, gravel, or uneven city sidewalks. Considering this, the built environment should be made more accessible to facilitate older adults' safe walking.

One of the most fundamental and striking limitations of hu-man cognitive function is the constraint on the number ofcontrol-dependent processes that can be executed simultane-ously. However, the sources of this capacity constraint re-main largely unexplored. Previous work has attributed the con-straints on control-dependent processing to the sharing of rep-resentations between tasks in neural systems. Here, we exam-ine how shared representations interact with two other factorsin producing constraints on control-dependent processing. Wefirst demonstrate that the detrimental effects of shared repre-sentations on multitasking performance are contingent on theamount of conflict that is induced by the tasks that share rep-resentations. We then examine how the persistence of sharedrepresentations between tasks affects processing interferenceduring serial task execution. Finally, we discuss how this set ofmechanisms can account for various phenomena in neural ar-chitectures, including the psychological refractory period, taskswitch costs, as well as constraints on cognitive control.

IntroductionWalking while texting can create gait disturbances that may increase fall risk, especially in outdoors environment. To date, no study has quantified the effect of texting on motor behavior using different dynamic tasks in outdoor environments. We aimed to explore the impact of texting on dynamic tasks in indoor and outdoor environments.MethodsTwenty participants (age 38.3 ± 12.5 years, 12 F) had a Delsys inertial sensor fixed on their back and completed walk, turn, sit-to-stand, and stand-to-sit subtasks with and without texting in both indoor and outdoor environments.ResultsWhile there was no difference in texting accuracy (p = 0.3), there was a higher dual-tasking cost in walking time with texting outdoors than indoors (p = 0.008).DiscussionDual tasking has a greater impact on walking time outdoors compared to an indoor environment. Our findings highlight the importance of patient education concerning dual-tasking and pedestrian safety in clinical settings.

A prominent feature of cognitive aging is the decline of executive function (EF) abilities. Numerous studies have reported that older adults perform poorer than younger adults in such tasks. In this cross-sectional study, the effect of age on four EFs, inhibition, shifting, updating, and dual-tasking, was examined in 26 young adults (mean 21.18 years) and 25 older adults (mean 71.56 years) with the utilization of a pair of tasks for each EF. The tasks employed for DT were the Psychological Refractory Period paradigm (PRP) and a modified test for everyday attention, for inhibition the Stroop and Hayling sentence completion test (HSCT), for shifting a task switching paradigm and the trail making test (TMT), and for updating the backward digit span (BDS) task and a n-back paradigm. As all participants performed all tasks, a further aim was to compare the size of the age-related cognitive decline among the four EFs. Age-related decline was observed in all four EFs in one or both of the tasks employed. The results revealed significantly poorer performance in the older adults in the response times (RTs) of the PRP effect, interference score of the Stroop, RT inhibition costs of the HSCT, RT and error-rate shifting costs of the task switching paradigm, and the error-rate updating costs of the n-back paradigm. A comparison between the rates of decline revealed numerical and statistically significant differences between the four EFs, with inhibition showing the greatest decline, followed by shifting, updating, and dual-tasking. Thus, we conclude that with age, these four EFs decline at different rates.

Background: Dual-task (DT) walking is of great interest in clinical evaluation to evaluate the risk of falling or cognitive declines in older adults. However, it appears necessary to investigate deeply the confounding factors to better understand their impact on dual-task performance. Objective: To evaluate the effect of age, sex, falls and frailty on cognitive and motor parameters in dual-task walking. Subjects: 66 older participants (mean age = 75.5 ± 6.3; mean height = 165.8 ± 8.4 cm; mean weight = 68.4 ± 14 kgs) were split into groups based on their age, sex, fall and frailty status. Methods: Participants performed single-task walking, single-task cognitive (serial subtraction of 3), and dual-task walking (subtraction + walking) for 1 min at their fast pace. Gait speed, step length, step length variability, stance and swing phase time, single and double support, cadence, step time variability and gait speed variability were recorded in single- and dual-task walking and used to calculate the dual-task effect (DTE) as ((DT − ST) / ST) ∗ 100). The cognitive score (DTEcog) was calculated as the number of correct responses minus errors. Generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) were used to compare the effects of falls, frailty, age and sex on gait and cognitive variables. Results: The interaction frailty*sex and frailty*age were the major effect on the DTEs. Specifically, the DTE was higher in women than men and in the frail group compared to non-frail. Conclusions: The present findings provide a better understanding on the confounding factors explaining the behavior in DT that could be used to develop more effective dual-task clinical programs for community-living older adults.

How people produce and perceive words is one of the core questions in language research, as words are the basis of communication about the world. While it seems simple, producing and comprehending words is actually quite a complex task with multiple steps involved. When thinking about what to say we need to translate an idea into a concrete ‘word’ and tell our vocal cords to produce the word sounds in a particular order. To understand a word, we must take a continuous stream of sound and carve it up into ‘words’ that we understand. Currently, there is a rich source of debate between language researchers on how these different steps are organized, and how similar they are between word production and comprehension. In this article we focus on to what extent word representations are shared between word production and comprehension.Before discussing whether representations are shared, we first broadly state the processing steps involved in each behaviour. In general, words can be broken down into three different linguistic processing levels: the semantic level (i.e., what does the word mean?), the phonological level (i.e., what is the sound form of the word?), and the articulation or sound stream level (i.e., how do we say this, or what word do these sounds relate to?). Of these three levels, there are different ways to approach the question of whether word representations are shared. In the article, we acknowledge the importance of clarifying the terms ‘representation’ and ‘shared’. We argue that defining the first term, ‘representation’, is difficult because of a) the ambiguities in what researchers mean when they use the term ‘representation’, and b) of technical limitations to exactly what we can measure. For some researchers, representation refers to a holistic word representation that has a concrete ‘location’ in the brain, but for others it is constructed ‘on the fly’ during communication (or a mixture of the two). Without sufficient clarity in definition, it can be challenging to test whether representations are shared. We argue that a strict definition of a shared representation instantiated in the brain would be that the same neurons would fire for the same reason in both production and comprehension. Given that we do not have the technology to measure that yet, we rely on other approaches. The approach we take here has three prongs: word representations are shared if they 1) share the same time course of processing between different processing levels, 2) if the same regions of the brain are used for specific word processes in production and comprehension, and 3) if, when carrying out production and comprehension in parallel, there is interference between the tasks which we can locate to different levels. Relating to our first approach, there is mixed existing evidence on whether or not the time course of processing in word production and comprehension is similar. By time course, we mean whether the different levels are accessed simultaneously or in a sequence, for instance whether the semantics of the word are accessible prior to the sounds of the word, or whether all ‘parts’ of a word are accessible at the same time. While some studies have found a pattern which follows sequential activation of these stages (Dufour et al., 2013; Salmelin et al., 1994), more current studies, including by our team, suggest that all levels of word processing are simultaneously active very early on. For example, using EEG we found that lexical-related and phoneme-related information are simultaneously active in word production and comprehension (Fairs et al., 2021). This suggests that the representations underlying word production and comprehension are strongly shared.Relating to our second approach, whether or not the brain regions underlying word production and comprehension are shared, again the evidence is mixed. Some theories argue that different areas of the brain are involved in word production and comprehension, with temporal areas involved in both but frontal areas only involved in production (Hickok & Poeppel, 2007). Other theories argue that the same word representations are used for production and comprehension and hence the same brain regions are involved in both (Pulvermuller, 1999; Strijkers et al., 2017). In a preregistered study which is currently underway, Fairs et al. (2020) aim to address this issue, by testing whether specific areas of the brain already established as being active for certain semantic and phonetic categories are active during both word production and comprehension. This study has the potential to truly shed light on how interconnected production and comprehension are.Relating to our third approach, we review a body of dual-tasking experiments that have tested whether word production and comprehension can be carried out simultaneously, and whether and how they interfere with one another. Fargier & Laganaro (2016; 2019) found word level interference between listening to syllables and producing words, suggesting that the stage of word form encoding is shared between production and comprehension. Fairs and colleagues (2019) found a large amount of processing overlap between word production and comprehension which suggests that not only the word form encoding stage but potentially more stages are shared between the two language behaviours. However, other studies have suggested that the linguistic system can flexibly adapt word production and comprehension processes (Fairs et al., 2018) such that the issue is not that there is overlap between representations, but when this overlap occurs. In the last section of this article, we support the paradigmatic turn to study how words function in context and highlight some of the research avenues. Words are the core basis on which conversations are built, and understanding how people have conversations is the ultimate goal of psycholinguistic research. Current research at a conversational level suggest that there is a large amount of overlap between production and comprehension both within a person (Menenti et al., 2011) and between people (Silbert et al., 2014). We nonetheless conclude that only with more research investigating the foundational blocks of language processing – words - will we truly understand how production and comprehension work and how shared word representations and processes are.

Background: In older adults, the extent to which performing a cognitive task when standing diminishes postural control is predictive of future falls and cognitive decline. The neurophysiology of such "dual-tasking" and its effect on postural control (i.e., dual-task cost) in older adults are poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to use electroencephalography (EEG) to examine the effects of dual-tasking when standing on brain activity in older adults. We hypothesized that compared to single-task "quiet" standing, dual-task standing would decrease alpha power, which has been linked to decreased motor inhibition, as well as increase the ratio of theta to beta power, which has been linked to increased attentional control.Methods: Thirty older adults without overt disease completed four separate visits. Postural sway together with EEG (32-channels) were recorded during trials of standing with and without a concurrent verbalized serial subtraction dual-task. Postural control was measured by average sway area, velocity, and path length. EEG metrics included absolute alpha-, theta-, and beta-band powers as well as theta/beta power ratio, within six demarcated regions-of-interest: the left and right anterior, central, and posterior regions of the brain.Results: Most EEG metrics demonstrated moderate-to-high between-day test-retest reliability (intra-class correlation coefficients > 0.70). Compared with quiet standing, dual-tasking decreased alpha-band power particularly in the central regions bilaterally (p = 0.002) and increased theta/beta power ratio in the anterior regions bilaterally (p < 0.001). A greater increase in theta/beta ratio from quiet standing to dual-tasking in numerous demarcated brain regions correlated with greater dual-task cost (i.e., absolute increase, indicative of worse performance) to postural sway metrics (r = 0.45-0.56, p < 0.01). Lastly, participants who exhibited greater alpha power during dual-tasking in the anterior-right (r = 0.52, p < 0.01) and central-right (r = 0.48, p < 0.01) regions had greater postural sway velocity during dual-tasking.Conclusion: In healthy older adults, alpha power and theta/beta power ratio change with dual-task standing. The change in theta/beta power ratio in particular may be related to the ability to regulate standing postural control when simultaneously performing unrelated, attention-demanding cognitive tasks. Modulation of brain oscillatory activity might therefore be a novel target to minimize dual-task cost in older adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: We examined whether individual differences in positive and negative affective states predicted dual-task costs using an established Dual-Task Walking protocol in non-demented older adults. We hypothesized that positive and negative affect would be associated with smaller and larger dual-task costs, respectively. Methods: Participants (N = 403; mean age = 76.22 ± 6.55; females = 56%) completed the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule and the walking protocol involving three conditions: Single-Task-Alpha, Single-Task-Walk (STW), and Dual-Task-Walk (DTW). Gait velocity was assessed via an instrumented walkway. Results: Negative affect was associated with greater decline in gait velocity from STW to DTW (95% confidence interval [−0.73 to −0.03]) but not the decline of the rate of correct letter generation. There was no significant relationship between positive affect and DTW performance. Discussion: Findings suggest negative affect is adversely associated with allocation of attentional resources, leading to worse mobility outcomes in older adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reactive balance is postulated to be attentionally demanding, although it has been underexamined in dual-tasking (DT) conditions. Further, DT studies have mainly included only one cognitive task, leaving it unknown how different cognitive domains contribute to reactive balance. This study examined how DT affected reactive responses to large-magnitude perturbations and compared cognitive-motor interference (CMI) between cognitive tasks. A total of 20 young adults aged 18–35 (40% female; 25.6 ± 3.8 y) were exposed to treadmill support surface perturbations alone (single-task (ST)) and while completing four cognitive tasks: Target, Track, Auditory Clock Test (ACT), Letter Number Sequencing (LNS). Three perturbations were delivered over 30 s in each trial. Cognitive tasks were also performed while seated and standing (ST). Compared to ST, post-perturbation MOS was lower when performing Track, and cognitive performance was reduced on the Target task during DT (p < 0.05). There was a larger decline in overall (cognitive + motor) performance from ST for both of the visuomotor tasks compared to the ACT and LNS (p < 0.05). The highest CMI was observed for visuomotor tasks; real-life visuomotor tasks could increase fall risk during daily living, especially for individuals with difficulty attending to more than one task.

Dual-tasking can cause cognitive–motor interference (CMI) and affect task performance. This study investigated the effects of age, gait speed, and type of cognitive task on CMI during gait. Ten younger and 10 older adults walked on a pressure-sensitive GAITRite walkway which recorded gait speed and step length. Participants walked at a slow, preferred, or fast speed while simultaneously completing four cognitive tasks: visuomotor reaction time (VMRT), serial subtraction (SS), word list generation (WLG), and visual Stroop (VS). Each combination of task and speed was repeated for two trials. Tasks were also performed while standing. Motor and cognitive costs were calculated with the formula: ((single-dual)/single × 100). Higher costs indicate a larger reduction in performance from single to dual-task. Motor costs were higher for WLG and SS than VMRT and VS and higher in older adults (p < 0.05). Cognitive costs were higher for SS than WLG (p = 0.001). At faster speeds, dual-task costs increased for WLG and SS, although decreased for VMRT. CMI was highest for working memory, language, and problem-solving tasks, which was reduced by slow walking. Aging increased CMI, although both ages were affected similarly by task and speed. Dual-task assessments could include challenging CMI conditions to improve the prediction of motor and cognitive status.

ObjectiveCognitive and motor dysfunctions in older people become more evident while dual-tasking. Several dual-task paradigms have been used to identify older individuals at the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease and dementia. This study evaluated gait kinematic parameters for dual-task (DT) conditions in older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), subjective cognitive decline (SCD), and normal cognition (NC).MethodThis is a cross-sectional, clinical-based study carried out at the Zhongshan Rehabilitation Branch of First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, China.ParticipantsWe recruited 83 community-dwelling participants and sorted them into MCI (n = 24), SCD (n = 33), and NC (n = 26) groups based on neuropsychological tests. Their mean age was 72.0 (5.55) years, and male–female ratio was 42/41 (p = 0.112). Each participant performed one single-task walk and four DT walks: DT calculation with subtracting serial sevens; DT naming animals; DT story recall; and DT words recall.Outcome and measuresKinematic gait parameters of speed, knee peak extension angle, and dual-task cost (DTC) were obtained using the Vicon Nexus motion capture system and calculated by Visual 3D software. A mixed-effect linear regression model was used to analyze the data.ResultsThe difference in gait speed under DT story recall and DT calculation was −0.099 m/s and − 0.119 m/s (p = 0.04, p = 0.013) between MCI and SCD, respectively. Knee peak extension angle under DT story recall, words recall, and single task was bigger in the MCI group compared to the NC group, respectively (p = 0.001, p = 0.001, p = 0.004). DTC was higher in the DT story recall test than all other DT conditions (p

Background: Multitasking is an essential part of our everyday life, but performance declines typically in older age. Many studies have investigated the beneficial effects of cognitive, motor and combined cognitive-motor training on multitasking performance in older adults. Previous work, however, has not regarded interindividual differences in cognitive functioning and motor fitness that may affect training benefits. The current study aims to identify whether different training programs may have differential effects on multitasking performance depending on the initial level of cognitive functioning and motor fitness.Methods: We conduct a 12-week single-blinded randomized controlled trial. A total of N = 150 healthy older adults are assigned to either a single cognitive, a single motor, or a simultaneous cognitive-motor training. Participants are trained twice per week for 45 min. A comprehensive test battery assesses cognitive functions, motor and cardiovascular fitness, and realistic multitasking during walking and driving in two virtual environments. We evaluate how multitasking performance is related not only to the training program, but also to participants' initial levels of cognitive functioning and motor fitness.Discussion: We expect that multitasking performance in participants with lower initial competence in either one or both domains (cognitive functioning, motor fitness) benefits more from single-task training (cognitive training and/or motor training). In contrast, multitasking performance in participants with higher competence in both domains should benefit more from multitask training (simultaneous cognitive-motor training). The results may help to identify whether tailored training is favorable over standardized one-size-fits all training approaches to improve multitasking in older adults. In addition, our findings will advance the understanding of factors that influence training effects on multitasking.Trial Registration: DRKS (German Clinical Trials Register), DRKS00022407. Registered 26/08/2020 - Retrospectively registered at https://www.drks.de/drks_web/setLocale_EN.do. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we investigated the combined effects of age, dual-tasking (DT) and a passive hip exoskeleton on gait patterns among senior (SA) and young adults (YA). It was hypothesized that SA will be more affected by DT and that wearing the exoskeleton will improve gait patterns for both groups during DT. Twenty-two SA and twenty-six YA performed a single task (normal walking) and DT walking at their preferred speed with an exoskeleton (EXO), without (noEXO), and a sham version (SHAM) in a randomized and balanced order. Speed, cadence, double support time (DST), step length, hip joint power, range of motion (ROM), and moments (mom), as well as DT performance, were extracted using mocap, force plates (1000 Hz), and a voice recorder. Three-way MANOVA with group × device × condition was conducted (p < .05, inferred significance). Results showed a predominantly significant main effect of group for step length, speed, DST, ROM, and mom (p ≤ .01), main effect of condition for cadence, DST, speed, and mom (p < .01) and a main effect of the device for ROMz and mom (p < .05). Age-related changes were seen by decreased walking speed and step length, independent of DT and use of exoskeleton. Wearing the EXO aided the SA group to maintain similar levels of cadence from single to DT and decreased the hip internal rotation mom by 65%. There was no difference in DT performance between groups. In conclusion, SA showed a decline in gait patterns during DT that was somewhat mitigated by wearing an EXO., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. Both the company and the municipality did not influence the results or the publication of the current manuscript., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier B.V.)