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OBJECTIVES: This paper describes the development and pilot testing of a communication skills curriculum based on medical student curriculum and modified for use with patients. METHODS: Six key concepts from our introductory medical education communication skills curriculum were identified. The core knowledge and skills related to these concepts were reorganized into six modules, including presentation materials, handouts and active learning components. The curriculum was pilot tested with three independent groups of non-medical participants, representing a broad cross-section of the community. RESULTS: Participants reported a high level of satisfaction; over 80% found the program helpful for learning new information and skills, and 92% for working with their physicians. Over 90% would recommend the program to others. Participant self-assessments revealed the greatest change in knowledge of medical interviewing. Skill changes were greatest in expressing emotion and efficiently telling the medical story. The pilot tests also highlighted the importance of other issues related to recruitment and health literacy. CONCLUSIONS: This project demonstrates that key concepts underlying doctor-patient communications can be simplified and repackaged for use from the patient's perspective. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Similar curricula can empower patients from all walks of life to better communicate with their health care providers and enhance their healthcare experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: We tested the hypothesis that trained medical faculty can train residents effectively in a mental health care model., Methods: After the authors trained medical faculty intensively for 15 months in primary care mental health, the newly trained faculty taught medical residents intensively. Residents were evaluated pre- and post-residency and compared to non-equivalent control residents in another city. Using ANOVA, the primary endpoint was residents' use of a mental health care model with simulated patients. Secondary endpoints were residents' skills using models for patient-centered interviewing and for informing and motivating patients., Results: For the mental health care model, there was a significant interaction between study site and time (F = 33.51, p < .001, Eta 2  = .34); mean pre-test and post-test control group scores were 8.15 and 8.79, respectively, compared to 7.44 and 15.0 for the intervention group. Findings were similarly positive for models of patient-centered interviewing and informing and motivating., Conclusions: Training medical faculty to teach residents a mental health care model offers a new educational approach to the widespread problem of poor mental health care., Practice Implications: While the models tested here can provide guidance in conducting mental health care, further evaluation of the train-the-trainer program for preparing residents is needed., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To improve efficiency and retain the 4 factors of a reliable, valid interview satisfaction questionnaire (ISQ)., Method: 105 residents conducted 301 patient-centered interviews with 10 simulated patients (SP). SPs portrayed three scenarios for each resident and completed the ISQ and the Communication Assessment Tool (CAT) after each. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the ISQ and CAT determined which items had >0.5 factor loadings and <0.1 error, criteria for retaining items in a shortened scale., Results: After the CFA, 13 items were deleted resulting in a 12-item scale (RMSE=0.06) that confirmed the initial 4 factor structure of satisfaction with: open-endedness, empathy, confidence in the resident, and general. Scale reliability of each factor was high (Cronbach's alpha ranged from .74 to .93). Demonstrating concurrent validity, all four factors of the ISQ correlated highly with the one-factor CAT (r>.7, p<.001), and the second order unidimensional ISQ scale also correlated highly with the CAT (r=.83, p<.001)., Conclusions: The ISQ is an efficient, reliable, and valid instrument that uniquely deconstructs satisfaction with the patient-physician interaction into 4 key components., Practice Implications: The 4 components provide a means for better understanding poor satisfaction results., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Previous case reports and small studies have suggested that 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitors (HMG-CoA-Is) may increase the risk of tendon rupture. We conducted a population-based retrospective cohort evaluation to better assess this relationship. From approximately 800,000 enrollees of a private insurance database, those who were aged ≤64 years with at least 1 year of continuous enrollment were selected. Exposure was defined as initiation of HMG-CoA-I after the beginning of the study period. Each exposed person was matched with 2 controls of similar age and gender. Baseline characteristics, including known risk factors for tendon rupture, were compared between exposed and control cohorts with fidelity to the study's matched design. After adjusting for differences in follow-up and baseline characteristics, incidence rate ratios for tendon rupture was assessed in HMG-CoA-I users and nonusers. A total of 34,749 exposed patients were matched with 69,498 controls. There was no difference in the occurrence of tendon ruptures in HMG-CoA-I users versus nonusers. The results remained unchanged after adjustment for age and gender. In conclusion, this population-based retrospective cohort evaluation suggests that use of HMG-CoA-Is as a group are not associated with tendon rupture.

Objective: Many express concern that modern medicine fails to provide adequate psychosocial and mental health care. Our educational system has not trained the primary care providers who care for most of these patients. Our objective here is to propose a quantum change: prepare residents and students during all years of training so that they are as effective in treating psychosocial and mental health issues as they are medical problems., Method: We operationalize this objective, following Kern, by developing an intensive 3-year curriculum in psychosocial and mental health care for medical residents based on models with a strong evidence-base., Results: We report an intensive curriculum that can guide others with similar training interests and also initiate the conversation about how best to prepare residency graduates to provide effective mental health and psychosocial care., Conclusion: Identifying specific curricula informs education policy-makers of the specific requirements they will need to meet if psychosocial and mental health training are to improve., Practice Implications: Training residents in mental health will lead to improved care for this very prevalent primary care population., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To train medical residents and nurses to work together as a patient-centered care (PCC) team on a medical ward and test its feasibility, nurses' learning, and patient outcomes., Method: Working with administrative leadership, we consolidated residents' patients on one 32-bed ward. Already training residents in an evidence-based patient-centered method, we now trained 5 nurse leaders similarly, and they then trained all staff nurses. A national consultant visited twice. Specific team-building activities for nurses and residents fostered ward interactions. We used a retrospective pre/post/6-month post-design to evaluate nurses' knowledge and self-efficacy of patient-centered skills. Patients were assigned non-randomly to our unit or comparison units from our emergency room; using a post-test only design, the primary endpoint was patient satisfaction., Results: 28 trained nurses showed improvement in knowledge (p=0.02) and self-efficacy (p=0.001). 81 treatment patients showed no improvement in satisfaction (p=0.44)., Conclusion: Training nurses in patient-centered practices were effective. Unique in this country, we also trained nurses and residents together as a PCC team on a medical ward and showed it was feasible and well accepted., Practice Implications: We provide a template for team training and urge that others explore this important new area and contribute to its further development., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Touted by some as reflecting a better medical model and cited by the influential IOM report in 2000 as one of the six domains of quality care, patient-centered medicine has yet to fully establish its scientific attributes or to become mainstream. One proposed reason is failure to behaviorally define what the term 'patient-centered' actually means., Objectives: (1) To identify patient-centered articles among all reported randomized controlled trials (RCT); (2) to identify those with specific behaviorally defined interventions; (3) to identify commonalities among the behavioral definitions; and (4) to evaluate the relationship of the well-defined RCTs to patient outcomes., Data Sources: Medline from April 2010 to 1975. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA, PARTICIPANTS, AND INTERVENTIONS: RCTs having any specific, behaviorally defined patient-centered skill(s) in an intervention with some patient outcome involving real adult patients and providers in real clinical situations. APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS: Critical appraisal via narrative review., Results: The prevalence of any mention of patient-centeredness among 327,219 RCTs was 0.50% (1,475 studies), from which we identified only 13 studies (0.90%) where there were behaviorally-defined patient-centered skills in an intervention. Although there were too few studies to make clinical recommendations, we identified common features of the behavioral definitions used: all went well beyond identifying individual skills. Rather, skills were grouped, prioritized, and sequenced by virtually all, often describing a stepwise patient-centered approach to, variously, gather data, address emotions, or inform and motivate., Limitations: The inherent subjectivity of our method for identifying behaviorally-defined studies could under- or over-represent truly replicable such studies considerably. Also, studies were few and very heterogeneous with interventions of widely differing intensity and foci., Conclusions and Implications: RCTs identified as patient-centered were rare, and <1% of these were behaviorally defined and, therefore, possibly replicable. There were many common behavioral definitions in the studies reported, and these can guide us in identifying agreed-upon patient-centered interventions, the immediate next-step in advancing the field.

Background: High utilising primary care patients with medically unexplained symptoms (MUS) often frustrate their primary care providers. Studies that elucidate the attitudes of these patients may help to increase understanding and improve confidence of clinicians who care for them. The objective of this study was to describe and analyze perceptions and lived experiences of high utilising primary care patients with MUS., Methods: A purposive sample of 19 high utilising primary care patients for whom at least 50% (69.6% in this sample) of visits for two years could not be explained medically, were encouraged to talk spontaneously about themselves and answer semi-structured questions. Verbatim transcripts of interviews were analyzed using an iterative consensus building process., Results: Patients with MUS almost universally described current and/or past family dysfunction and were subjected to excessive testing and ineffective empirical treatments. Three distinct groups emerged from the data. 1) Some patients, who had achieved a significant degree of psychological insight and had success in life, primarily sought explanations for their symptoms. 2) Patients who had less psychological insight were more disabled by their symptoms and felt strongly entitled to be excused from normal social obligations. Typically, these patients primarily sought symptom relief, legitimization, and support. 3) Patients who expressed worry about missed diagnoses demanded excessive care and complained when their demands were resisted., Conclusion: High utilising primary care patients are a heterogeneous group with similar experiences and different perceptions, behaviours and needs. Recognizing these differences may be critical to effective treatment and reduction in utilisation.

Background: Although clinicians are expected to help patients make decisions about end-of-life care, there is insufficient data to help guide patient preferences. The objective of this study was to determine the frequency of patients who undergo 'limited code' and compare survival to discharge with those who undergo maximum resuscitative efforts ('full code')., Methods: We performed a retrospective analysis of all adult in-hospital cardiac arrests (IHCA) at a tertiary care teaching hospital from January 1999 to December 2003 to compare survival in patients with limited code to survival in patients with a full code. We collected data on demographic and clinical variables known to influence survival in IHCA. Logistic regression was used to assess the association of code status with subsequent survival through the code and to hospital discharge after adjusting for potential confounding factors., Results: Of the 309 patients having IHCA, there were 17 (5.5%) patients with limited code status and 292 (94.5%) with full code status. Among full code patients, 171 (58.6%) survived the code compared to five patients (29.4%) who had a limited code (p=0.023). After adjusting for demographic variables and pre-arrest co-morbidities, patients with full code status compared to limited code status had an odds ratio for return of spontaneous circulation of 3.69 (95% CI: 1.13-14.34)., Conclusions: Patients who opt for limited code have a significantly lower probability of survival compared to patients who choose full code. Patients who choose limited code should be informed of the likely negative outcome as compared to full resuscitation.

Although case reports of a possible association between statin therapy and tendon rupture have been published, no analytical studies exploring this relationship have been reported. We conducted a case-control study using the electronic medical records at Michigan State University from 2002 to 2007 to assess whether statin use is a risk factor for tendon rupture. We compared exposure to statins in 93 cases of tendon rupture with similar exposure in 279 sex- and age-matched controls. Exposure to statins was defined as documentation in the electronic medical record of statin use in the 12 months preceding tendon rupture. For controls, the exposure period was defined as 1 year preceding the last office visit. We used a multivariate logistic regression model, controlling for diabetes, renal disease, rheumatologic disease, and steroid use, to calculate the adjusted odds ratios (ORs). There was no significant difference between cases and controls in the rates of statin use, with either univariate [OR = 1.0, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.54-1.84] or multivariate analyses (OR = 1.10, 95% CI 0.57-2.13). Based on predetermined subgroup analyses, statin exposure was found to be a significant risk factor for tendon rupture in women (adjusted OR = 3.76, 95% CI 1.11-12.75) but not in men (adjusted OR = 0.66, 95% CI 0.29-1.51). In conclusion, we found no overall association between statin use and tendon rupture, but subgroup analysis suggested that women with tendon rupture were more likely to be on statins.

Patients with medically unexplained symptoms (MUS) have little or no demonstrable disease explanation for the symptoms, and comorbid psychiatric disorders are frequent. Although common, costly, distressed, and often receiving ill-advised testing and treatments, most MUS patients go unrecognized, which precludes effective treatment. To enhance recognition, we present an emerging perspective that envisions a unitary classification for the entire spectrum of MUS where this diagnosis comprises severity, duration, and comorbidity. We then present a specific approach for making the diagnosis at each level of severity. Although our disease-based diagnosis system dictates excluding organic disease to diagnose MUS, much exclusion can occur clinically without recourse to laboratory or consultative evaluation because the majority of patients are mild. Only the less common, "difficult" patients with moderate and severe MUS require investigation to exclude organic diseases. By explicitly diagnosing and labeling all severity levels of MUS, we propose that this diagnostic approach cannot only facilitate effective treatment but also reduce the cost and morbidity from unnecessary interventions.

Objective: There is no proven primary care treatment for patients with medically unexplained symptoms (MUS). We hypothesized that a long-term, multidimensional intervention by primary care providers would improve MUS patients' mental health., Design: Clinical trial., Setting: HMO in Lansing, MI., Participants: Patients from 18 to 65 years old with 2 consecutive years of high utilization were identified as having MUS by a reliable chart rating procedure; 206 subjects were randomized and 200 completed the study., Intervention: From May 2000 to January 2003, 4 primary care clinicians deployed a 12-month intervention consisting of cognitive-behavioral, pharmacological, and other treatment modalities. A behaviorally defined patient-centered method was used by clinicians to facilitate this treatment and the provider-patient relationship., Main Outcome Measure: The primary endpoint was an improvement from baseline to 12 months of 4 or more points on the Mental Component Summary of the SF-36., Results: Two hundred patients averaged 13.6 visits for the year preceding study. The average age was 47.7 years and 79.1% were females. Using intent to treat, 48 treatment and 34 control patients improved (odds ratio [OR]=1.92, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.08 to 3.40; P=.02). The relative benefit (relative "risk" for improving) was 1.47 (CI: 1.05 to 2.07), and the number needed to treat was 6.4 (95% CI: 0.89 to 11.89). The following baseline measures predicted improvement: severe mental dysfunction (P<.001), severe body pain (P=.039), nonsevere physical dysfunction (P=.003), and at least 16 years of education (P=.022); c-statistic=0.75., Conclusion: The first multidimensional intervention by primary care clinicians led to clinically significant improvement in MUS patients.

Educators rarely consider the attitudes that determine whether a learner will use the clinical skills we teach. Nevertheless, many learners and practitioners exhibit negative attitudes that can impede the use of patient-centered skills, leading to an isolated focus upon disease and impairing the provider-patient relationship. The problem is compounded because these attitudes often are incompletely recognized by learners and therefore are difficult to change without help. We present a research-based method for teaching personal awareness of unrecognized and often harmful attitudes. We propose that primary care clinicians without mental health training can follow this method to teach students, residents, faculty, and practitioners. Such teachers/mentors need to possess an abiding interest in the personal dimension, patience with a slowly evolving process of awareness, and the ability to establish strong, ongoing relationships with learners. Personal awareness teaching may occur during instruction in basic interviewing skills but works best if systematically incorporated throughout training.

Objective: To examine changes in the rate of beta-blocker (BB) use at admission, in hospital, and at discharge between 1994 and 1995 (MICH I) and 1997 (MICH II) in patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI)., Design: Comparison of two prospectively enrolled cohorts., Setting: Five mid-Michigan community hospitals., Patients: We studied 287 MICH I patients and 121 MICH II patients with AMI who had no contraindications to BB use from cohorts of consecutively admitted cases of AMI (814 in MICH I; 500 in MICH II)., Results: Prescription of BBs to ideal patients with AMI increased in patients with previous history of myocardial infarction on arrival at the hospital (12.5% vs 36.0%; P= .01), in hospital (47.0% vs 76%; P < .01), and at discharge (34.0% vs 61.9%; P < .01). Neither race nor gender was a predictor of BB use. Younger age predicted BB prescription at discharge (odds ratio [OR], 2.07; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.32 to 3.23). Later study cohort was the most important predictor of BB use in hospital (OR, 3.4; 95% CI, 2.09 to 5.25)., Conclusion: BB use improved dramatically over the study period, but additional work is needed to improve use of BB after discharge and among elderly patients with AMI.

Background: As part of conducting a randomized control trial (RCT) to treat chronically high utilizing patients with medically unexplained symptoms (MUS), we developed the chart rating method reported here to identify and classify MUS subjects., Method: Intended at this point only as a research tool, the method is comprehensive, uses explicit guidelines, and requires clinician raters. It distinguishes primary organic disease patients from those with primary MUS, quantifies medical comorbidities in primary MUS patients, and also distinguishes subgroups among MUS patients that we call somatization (resembles DSM-IV somatoform disorders) and minor acute illness (MAI) which differs from DSM-IV somatoform definitions. Scoring rules are used to generate the diagnoses above. The rules may be set according to the investigator's needs, from highly sensitive to highly specific., Results: We found high levels of agreement with the gold standard for MUS vs. organic disease (97.6%) and among raters for the key individual chart elements rated (92-96%). The method identified 206 MUS subjects and the extent of their medical comorbidities for entry into a RCT. It also identified somatization and MAI; the latter supports the validity of this newly reported MAI syndrome., Conclusion: We concluded that this method offered research potential for identifying MUS patients, for quantifying their medical comorbidities, and for classifying MUS subgroups., (Copyright 2004 S. Karger AG, Basel)

Background: There are no proven, comprehensive treatments in primary care for patients with medically unexplained symptoms (MUS) even though these patients have high levels of psychosocial distress, medical disability, costs, and utilization. Despite extensive care, these common patients often become worse., Objective: We sought to identify an effective, research-based treatment that can be conducted by primary care personnel., Design: We used our own experiences and files, consulted with experts, and conducted an extensive review of the literature to identify two things: 1). effective treatments from randomized controlled trials for MUS patients in primary care and in specialty settings; and 2). any type of treatment study in a related area that might inform primary care treatment, for example, depression, provider-patient relationship., Main Results: We developed a multidimensional treatment plan by integrating several areas of the literature: collaborative/stepped care, cognitive-behavioral treatment, and the provider-patient relationship. The treatment is designed for primary care personnel (physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners) and deployed intensively at the outset; visit intervals are progressively increased as stability and improvement occur., Conclusion: Providing a comprehensive treatment plan for chronic, high-utilizing MUS patients removes one barrier to treating this common problem effectively in primary care by primary care personnel.

Objective: To assess the influence of race and gender influence on the use of invasive procedures in patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in community hospitals., Design: Prospective, observational., Setting: Five mid-Michigan community hospitals., Patients: All patients (838) identified with AMI between January 1994 and April 1995 in 1 of these hospitals., Measurements and Main Results: After adjusting for age, hospital of admission, insurance type, severity of AMI, and comorbidity, using white men as the reference group, the rate of being offered cardiac catheterization (CC) was 0.88 (95% confidence interval [95% CI], 0.60 to 1.29) for white women; 0.79 (95% CI, 0.41 to 1.50) for black men; and 1.14 (95% CI, 0.53 to 2.45)for black women. Among patients who underwent CC, after also adjusting for coronary artery anatomy, the rate of being offered angioplasty, using white men as the reference group, was 1.22 (95% CI, 0.75 to 1.98) for white women; 0.61 (5% CI, 0.29 to 1.28, P =.192) for black men; and 0.40 (95% CI, 0.14 to 1.13) for black women The adjusted rate of being offered bypass surgery was 0.47 (95% CI, 0.24 to 0.89) for white women; 0.36 (95% CI, 0.12 to 1.06) for black men; and 0.37 (95% CI, 0.11 to 1.28)for black women., Conclusions: Our study shows that white women are less likely than white men to be offered bypass surgery after AMI. Although black men and women with AMI are less likely than white men to be offered percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty or coronary artery bypass grafting in both unadjusted and adjusted analyses, these findings did not reach statistical significance. Our study is limited in power due to the small number of blacks in the sample.

Background: Previous studies documenting underutilization of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) in acute myocardial infarction (AMI) have been limited to Medicare populations., Hypothesis: This study examines ACEI prescription rates and predictors in a community sample of hospitalized patients with AMI., Methods: The charts of 1163 community patients with AMI, prospectively identified at admission between January 1, 1994, and April 30, 1995, were reviewed., Results: Only 64 of 158 (40%) patients considered ideal candidates for ACEI prescription were discharged with a prescription for an ACEI. In a multivariate logistic regression model, prior ACEI utilization [adjusted odds ration (OR) = 3.26; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 2.05-5.20], presence of congestive heart failure (OR = 2.33; CI = 1.50-3.61) and black race (OR = 2.20; CI = 1.34-3.64) were identified as positive predictors of ACEI prescription. Conversely, lack of left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) measurement (OR = 0.46; CI = 0.28-0.75), LVEF > 40 ( OR = 0.27; CI = 0.18-0.40), and acute renal failure (OR = 0.08; CI = 0.01-0.44) were negative predictors. Women were also less likely to be discharged with an ACEI prescription (OR = 0.71; CI = 0.48-1.05). Furthermore, women were significantly less likely to have LVEF measured prior to discharge than were males (77 vs. 85%, p = 0.001)., Conclusion: This study underscores the need for improvement in the utilization of ACEI in eligible patients with AMI. It also identifies opportunities for improvement in prescription rates, especially in women.