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Developmental dyslexia is characterized by difficulties in learning to read, affecting cognition and causing failure at school. Interventions for children with developmental dyslexia have focused on improving linguistic capabilities (phonics, orthographic and morphological instructions), but developmental dyslexia is accompanied by a wide variety of sensorimotor impairments. The goal of this study was to examine the effects of a proprioceptive intervention on reading performance and eye movement in children with developmental dyslexia. Nineteen children diagnosed with developmental dyslexia were randomly assigned to a regular Speech Therapy (ST) or to a Proprioceptive and Speech Intervention (PSI), in which they received both the usual speech therapy and a proprioceptive intervention aimed to correct their sensorimotor impairments (prism glasses, oral neurostimulation, insoles and breathing instructions). Silent reading performance and eye movements were measured pre- and post-intervention (after nine months). In the PSI group, reading performance improved and eye movements were smoother and faster, reaching values similar to those of children with typical reading performance. The recognition of written words also improved, indicating better lexical access. These results show that PSI might constitute a valuable tool for reading improvement children with developmental dyslexia., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

This study aims to examine the long-term effects of Visual Praxis Based Occupational Therapy Program (VP-OTP) on the reading skills of children with Developmental Dyslexia. A total of 126 children with Developmental Dyslexia participated in the study. The participants were then divided into two groups (Intervention and Control groups) of equal sizes ( n  = 63) using a random number generator without replacement. The intervention group received VP-OTP in two weekly sessions for 8 weeks. All participants were assessed with the Oral Reading Skills and Comprehension Test-II (Sobat®-II) at three time points; pretest, post-test, and follow-up. The intervention group showed promising results as the Sobat®-II's Reading Accuracy, Reading Speed, Fluent Reading, Reading Comprehension Total Score significantly increased after the intervention ( p  ≤ 0.05) and the scores were maintained at the follow-up ( p  > 0.05). The VP-OTP intervention provided a maintained improvement in reading skills of children with Developmental Dyslexia.

The oculomotor abnormalities have been reported in some dyslexic children. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effects of oculomotor rehabilitation on the reading performance of dyslexic children. Subjects were 50 dyslexic children. Those with oculomotor abnormalities ( n = 30) were randomly assigned into 2 groups matched for age. The case group received oculomotor rehabilitation. The rehabilitation program consists of 3 different exercises. The reading and dyslexia tests were performed before and after the intervention. The correct scores of reading tests in the case group posttest increased significantly compared with the control group, and there is a significant difference between the two groups ( P = .001). The positive effects of oculomotor rehabilitation on the reading performance of dyslexic children confirmed that the oculomotor program could be a practical tool for improving reading performance in dyslexic children., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

An emerging body of research utilizes music in the treatment of children with specific learning disorders in reading. However, greater understanding of music interventions is necessary for efficient application of music to address children's specific reading needs. Therefore, this scoping review aimed to identify the key musical concepts used to improve reading skills. Intervention studies were identified through online searches of databases and hand searching of primary journals in music therapy, and 12 studies met the inclusion criteria. For the 12 studies, auditory processing, phonological processing, and temporal processing were the underlying mechanisms identified in the interventions. Most of the interventions presented rhythmic activities for the purpose of improving reading accuracy. The results of this study highlight the lack of specific descriptions for the musical elements used within music interventions targeting reading skills. In addition, due to the diversity of the terms used to describe the music interventions, it was difficult to compare the effectiveness of these interventions on reading accuracy, comprehension skills, and fluency. Therefore, future studies are needed to articulate clear rationales for how musical elements can be used in music interventions to treat specific reading disabilities in children., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of American Music Therapy Association. All rights reserved. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com.)

More than two-thirds of middle school students do not read proficiently. Research has shown that targeted interventions using explicit instruction methods can improve reading outcomes for struggling readers. A central feature of explicit instruction is the systematic implementation of instructional interactions, but it is not clear what specific instructional interaction practices lead to stronger outcomes for middle school readers. This study used a regression discontinuity design to compare the frequency and impact of instructional interactions experienced by U.S. eighth-grade students who received a targeted reading intervention ( n = 1,461) with those who did not ( n = 4,292). Results indicated that students who received intervention experienced far more instructional interactions with their teachers than did students who did not. However, the association between rates of interaction and student need in the intervention group was minimal, and the relationship between the rate of instructional interactions and reading growth was mixed. Implications for intervening with struggling students in the middle grades are discussed., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Twice-exceptionality is characterized as the presence of high performance concomitantly with deficiencies or incompatible conditions. An example is when giftedness manifest associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. This study is a clinical case report referring to the evaluative and interventional process of a 9- year-old child with the paradoxical combination of giftedness associated with dyslexia. It aims to compare the performance in phonological processing, reading and writing before and after phonological remediation. In the first assessment, the child demonstrated alphabetic level in reading, a transition phase between syllabic-alphabetic and alphabetical writing levels, and below-expected performance in phonological processing skills. After intervention, the results showed consistent improvements in phonological processing, the consolidation of alphabetical writing and orthographic reading level. In general, children with isolated dyslexia have persistent difficulties in several skills after intervention. The evolution shown after phonological remediation, especially at reading level, shows different characteristics than expected. Thus, it can be concluded that twice-exceptionality may have favored the overcoming of some of the shown difficulties more successfully. Studies on these combined conditions can contribute to a better understanding of this framework during the development of learning and to formulate specialized interventions.

This study aimed to examine the effects of a visual praxis-based occupational therapy (VPOT) program on reading and motor skills for children with developmental dyslexia (DD). Forty-two children were included in the study. Additionally, before VPOT, the Reading-Aloud and Reading-Comprehension Test 2 (ORSRC-2) and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Motor-Proficiency-Test-2-Brief Form (BOT2-BF) were applied to the participants. According to the study design, VPOT was applied to two sessions per week for 8 weeks to group A. During this period, group B was accepted as the control group. At the end of these 8 weeks, evaluation tests were applied to both groups. Then, group A was defined as the control group and Group B as the intervention group, and VPOT was applied to Group B. At the end of another 8 weeks, evaluation tests were applied to both groups for the third time. When the final ORSRC-2 results were examined, VPOT was found to be an effective program for improving reading skills. Additionally, when the final BOT2-BF results were examined, VPOT was determined to be effective in improving motor skills (p < 0.05). We believe that it is important to carry out comprehensive studies such as the VPOT program to solve problems in the physical and learning activities of children with DD., (© 2024 The Author(s). Dyslexia published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

We report a small study in which we explored the effects of manipulating narrative text on levels of comprehension for students with and without dyslexia. Using two pieces of standardised narrative text deemed to be of similar difficulty and length, we manipulated the texts such that we could present two texts to each participant, one in each condition. The first condition was text using standard inter-word spacing; the second condition used increased inter-word spacing. Scores on standardised comprehension questions were significantly improved for participants with dyslexia. Additionally, given that there is evidence of delayed visual attention disengagement in individuals with specific forms of dyslexia, we hypothesised that the phenomena of migration of letters and words for some readers might be mitigated by increasing inter-word spacing. We did indeed find that incidence of migration was significantly reduced in this condition for all participants., (© 2024 The Author(s). Dyslexia published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

This study aimed to examine the effects of a visual praxis-based occupational therapy (VPOT) programme on reading and motor skills for children with developmental dyslexia (DD). Forty-two children were included in the study. Additionally, before VPOT, the Reading-Aloud and Reading-Comprehension Test 2 (ORSRC-2) and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Motor-Proficiency-Test-2-Brief Form (BOT2-BF) were applied to the participants. According to the study design, VPOT was applied to two sessions per week for 8 weeks to group A. During this period, group B was accepted as the control group. At the end of these 8 weeks, evaluation tests were applied to both groups. Then, group A was defined as the control group and Group B as the intervention group, and VPOT was applied to Group B. At the end of another 8 weeks, evaluation tests were applied to both groups for the third time. When the final ORSRC-2 results were examined, VPOT was found to be an effective programme for improving reading skills. Additionally, when the final BOT2-BF results were examined, VPOT was determined to be effective in improving motor skills (p < 0.05). We believe that it is important to carry out comprehensive studies such as the VPOT programme to solve problems in the physical and learning activities of children with DD., (© 2024 The Author(s). Dyslexia published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

In this study, we investigated the outcome of goal attainment in individual and group-based neuropsychological intervention for young adults with dyslexia. Participants ( N  = 120) were randomly assigned to individual intervention, group intervention, or wait-list control group. Attainment of goals set personally before the intervention was evaluated after the intervention using Goal Attainment Scaling. The participants were asked to report the number of concrete changes made in their study or working habits at five months (after intervention or wait-list control time), at ten months, and 15 months post-interventions. Potential predictive factors for predicting goal attainment were evaluated including background and cognitive variables, self-reported psychological variables (mood, cognitive and behavioral strategies, self-esteem, quality of life), and self-reported behavioral variables (concrete changes made, time used to work on intervention matters). Based on the results, personal goals were, on average, met especially in individual intervention. Nearly 50% of goal attainment was explained by intervention type, behavioral and cognitive strategies, concrete changes made, cognitive capacity, and used time. Concrete changes, e.g., adopting new strategies and methods in study or working habits, were reported in both interventions and more than during the wait-list control period. The changes seemed long-lasting as fifteen months post-intervention, 76.4% reported still using the learned strategies. A structured and relatively short neuropsychological intervention for dyslexia in either individual or group format can lead to attaining pre-set personal goals and positive behavioral changes that can last up to over a year post-intervention.

Multiple-baseline-across-word-sets designs were used to determine whether a computer-based intervention would enhance accurate word signing with four participants. Each participant was a hearing college student with reading disorders. Learning trials included 3 s to observe printed words on the screen and a video model performing the sign twice (i.e., simultaneous prompting), 3 s to make the sign, 3 s to observe the same clip, and 3 s to make the sign again. For each participant and word set, no words were accurately signed during baseline. After the intervention, all four participants increased their accurate word signing across all three word sets, providing 12 demonstrations of experimental control. For each participant, accurate word signing was maintained. Application of efficient, technology-based, simultaneous prompting interventions for enhancing American Sign Language learning and future research designed to investigate causal mechanisms and optimize intervention effects are discussed., (© 2024 Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (SEAB).)

Most students with reading difficulties struggle to read words. We examined intervention effects for students with significant word reading difficulties (SWRD; standard score of 80 on at least one pretest measure of word reading), which includes individuals with or at risk for dyslexia. We investigated: (a) What are the effects of reading interventions for students in Grades 3-12 with SWRD? and (b) What intervention features (i.e., instructional components and elements of dosage) are related to improved reading outcomes for the target population? A meta-analysis of 22 studies and 208 effect sizes revealed a statistically significant, positive, mean effect ( g = 0.14, standard error [ SE ] = 0.04, p = .01, 95% confidence interval [CI]: [0.04, 0.23]) of interventions for the target population. Subset analyses revealed positive, statistically significant intervention effects on measures of pseudoword reading ( g = 0.38, SE = 0.07, p = .0003, 95% CI [0.21, 0.54]) and pseudoword reading fluency ( g = 0.29, SE = 0.09, p = .010, 95% CI [0.09, 0.49]). Moderator analyses yielded statistically significant, positive effects associated with increased total hours of intervention, β = 0.003, SE = 0.0009, t (8.31) = 3.58, p = .007. Overall, findings indicate a need for interventions that improve generalized real-world reading for the target population., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Due to pandemic-induced lockdown(s) in 2020, dyslexia treatment was forced to move to online platforms. This study examined whether Dutch children who received online treatment progressed as much in their reading and spelling performance as children who received the usual face-to-face treatment. To this end, 254 children who received treatment-as-usual were compared to 162 children who received online treatment with Bayesian methods. The advantage of a Bayesian approach is that it can provide evidence for and against the null hypothesis whereas frequentist approaches only provide evidence against it. We found that children in the online treatment condition received slightly fewer treatment sessions but progressed equally after controlling for the number of sessions compared to the treatment-as-usual condition. These results have clinical and practical implications as they show that reading treatment can be successfully delivered online., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Purpose: This study presents several accounts of user experiences with assistive technology (AT). Although previous studies on dyslexic students reported promising results from using audiobooks, text-to-speech (TTS), and speech-to-text (STT), qualitative research is relatively sparse and short-term, and little is known about adolescents' long-term experiences of using AT in schools. Therefore, this five-year follow-up study aimed to describe dyslexic students' experiences of AT., Materials and Methods: Nine students with dyslexia were interviewed using a semi-structured framework and a descriptive pattern-based thematic analysis. The students had previously participated in an AT intervention in Sweden., Results: Three main themes are reported: Contextual factors: facilitators or barriers; Emotional responses in the learning environment; Developing meaningful strategies. The results align with previous research findings that audiobooks are beneficial throughout the school years, while STT is of mixed utility. TTS was mainly used in learning to decode texts. Continued AT use is discussed thematically, concretising experiences connected to schools' multilevel support., Conclusions: This study can contribute to the development of AT academic practices enriched by users' views. The findings reveal factors enabling or hindering students' continued AT usage. Contextual factors in schools concern organisational elements rather than AT accessibility. Students' emotional responses (using AT in the classroom) are influenced by dyslexia self-acceptance and AT attitudes. Students' understanding of how and why to use AT may limit the development of meaningful strategies. Implications and suggested further research are provided to improve dyslexic students' AT experiences and success in school.

Introduction: Reading disorders caused by homonymous visual field defects (HVFDs) have a significant impact on a patient's quality of life. However, no review has been conducted to evaluate the available evidence on the effects of rehabilitative interventions on reading disorders caused by HVFDs. Thus, the aim of this study was to systematically evaluate the effects of rehabilitative interventions on reading disorders caused by HVFDs., Methods: We searched the MEDLINE/PubMed, Cochrane Library, ClinicalTrials.gov, CINAHL, and ScienceDirect databases for relevant articles. Relevant search terms were used to identify reports of randomized controlled trials or randomized crossover trials published between January 1990 and December 2021. Only studies that included reading-speed-related outcomes were analyzed. Risk of bias was assessed using the PEDro scale. Meta-analysis was conducted using a random-effects model, and standardized mean differences (SMD) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. Heterogeneity was assessed using the Ι 2 statistic., Results: Nine studies were included in the meta-analysis. The results showed that rehabilitative interventions significantly improved reading disorders caused by HVFDs (SMD = 0.30; 95% CI 0.08-0.51; P < 0.01; Ι 2  = 0.0%). Subgroup analysis showed that reading training significantly improved reading disorders (SMD = 0.35; 95% CI 0.05-0.66; P = 0.02; Ι 2  = 0.0%)., Conclusion: Reading disorders caused by HVFDs can be improved through rehabilitation. In addition, reading training for the improvement of eye movement and fixation to compensate for foveal and parafoveal visual field defects may improve reading speed., (© 2023. The Author(s) under exclusive licence to Belgian Neurological Society.)

Dynamic visual attention training using Action Video Games (AVGs) is a promising intervention for dyslexia. This study investigated the efficacy of 5 h (10 × 30 min) of AVG training in dyslexic children (aged 8-13) using 'Fruit Ninja', while exploring whether increasing attentional and eye movement demands enhanced AVG effectiveness. Regular (AVG-R; n = 22) and enhanced AVG training (AVG+; n = 23) were compared to a treatment-as-usual comparison group (n = 19) on reading, rapid naming, eye movements and visuo-temporal processing. Playing 'Fruit Ninja' for only 5 h significantly improved reading accuracy, rate, comprehension and rapid naming of both AVG groups, compared to the comparison group, though increasing attentional demands did not enhance AVG efficacy. Participants whose low contrast magnocellular-temporal processing improved most following training also showed significantly greater improvement in reading accuracy. The findings demonstrate a clear role for visual attention in reading and highlight the clinical applicability of AVGs as a fun, motivational and engaging intervention for dyslexia., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Aberrations in functional connectivity in children with developmental dyslexia have been found in electroencephalographic studies using graph analysis. How training with visual tasks can modify the functional semantic network in developmental dyslexia remains unclear. We investigate local and global topological properties of functional networks in multiple EEG frequency ranges based on a small-world propensity method in controls, pre- and post-training dyslexic children during visual word/pseudoword processing. Results indicated that the EEG network topology in dyslexics before the training was more integrated than controls, and after training - more segregated and similar to that of the controls in the theta (θ: 4-8), alpha (α: 8-13), beta (β1: 13-20; β2: 20-30), and gamma (γ1: 30-48; γ2: 52-70 Hz) bands for three graph measures. The pre-training dyslexics exhibited a reduced strength and betweenness centrality of the left anterior temporal and parietal regions in the θ, α, β1 and γ1-frequency bands, compared to the controls. The simultaneous appearance of hubs in the left hemisphere (or both hemispheres) at temporal and parietal (α-word/γ-pseudoword discrimination), temporal and middle frontal cortex (θ, α-word), parietal and middle frontal cortex (β1-word), parietal and occipitotemporal cortices (θ-pseudoword), identified in the EEG-based functional networks of normally developing children were not present in the networks of dyslexics. The hub distribution for dyslexics in the θ, α, and β1 bands became similar to that of the controls. The topological organization of functional networks and the less efficient network configuration (long characteristic path length) in dyslexics compared to the more optimal global organization in the controls was studied for the first time after remediation training., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (© 2020 Dushanova and Tsokov Published by IMR Press.)

We conducted a secondary analysis of data from a randomized control trial to explore this question: Does "response/no response" best characterize students' reactions to a generally efficacious first-grade reading program, or is a more nuanced characterization necessary? Data were collected on 265 at-risk readers' word reading prior to and immediately following program implementation in first grade and in spring of second grade. Pretreatment data were also obtained on domain-specific skills (letter knowledge, decoding, passage comprehension, language) and domain-general skills (working memory, non-verbal reasoning). Latent profile analysis of word reading across the three time points with controls as a local norm revealed a strongly responsive group ( n = 45) with mean word-reading z scores of 0.25, 1.64, and 1.26 at the three time points, respectively; a mildly responsive group ( n = 109), z scores = 0.30, 0.47, and 0.55; a mildly non-responsive group ( n = 90), z scores = -0.11, -0.15, and -0.55; and a strongly non-responsive group ( n = 21), z scores = -1.24, -1.26, and -1.57. The two responsive groups had stronger pretreatment letter knowledge and passage comprehension than the two non-responsive groups. The mildly non-responsive group demonstrated better pretreatment passage comprehension than the strongly non-responsive group. No domain-general skill distinguished the four groups. Findings suggest response to early reading intervention was more complicated than response/no response, and pretreatment reading comprehension was an important predictor of response even with pretreatment word reading controlled.

This study compared the reading growth of students with and without learning disabilities, and students with and without reading deficits in response to tier 2 reading interventions within a response-to-intervention framework. Participants were 499 second- and third-grade students in six urban schools. Students who scored at or below the 10th percentile on the fall reading screening assessment were identified as having a severe reading deficit and received a tier 2 reading intervention that was targeted to their needs. Results showed a significant effect between groups on reading growth. Students with severe reading deficits receiving targeted tier 2 intervention grew at a rate that equaled the rate of growth of students without reading deficits and was significantly higher than students who were receiving special education services for reading. Implications for practice, suggestions for future research, and study limitations are discussed.

This study examines the initial word reading performance of fourth-grade struggling readers and the extent to which differing levels of word reading performance at pretest influenced their response to reading interventions. A large group of students with significant reading comprehension difficulties ( N = 481) were classified into three clusters of word reading proficiency based on their pretest performance: (a) very low, (b) low, and (c) near adequate. We examined their performance on several academic, language, and executive functioning measures at the beginning of the year and their reading comprehension performance at the beginning of year and after 1 year of reading intervention to examine how each cluster responded to instruction. Results from a discriminant function analysis indicated that performance on five pretest variables were meaningful predictors of word reading proficiency cluster membership: phonological processing, writing fluency, math calculation, math fluency, and reading efficiency and comprehension. Results also demonstrated that word reading proficiency at pretest was related to response to intervention on reading comprehension measures. Students in the very low word reading proficiency cluster showed minimal response to intervention whereas the near-adequate word reading cluster demonstrated greatest response to intervention. These results suggest word reading is a critical predictor of response to intervention for students with significant comprehension problems in the upper elementary grades and that students with the most substantial word reading problems may require more intensive and specialized treatments than students with greater word reading performance to show meaningful progress in reading.

Introduction-Purpose: Despite the growing amount of data on the 'synthetic speech perception' by people with no disabilities, there has been limited research on the intelligibility and comprehension of synthetic speech systems by dyslexics. This study investigated the intelligibility and comprehension of synthetic versus natural speech in Greek dyslexic students. Method: Forty three dyslexic students were presented with various acoustic stimuli (words, sentences, texts) both in synthetic and natural speech. Results: The data analysis has shown that dyslexic students had identified better words and sentences presented in natural than in synthetic speech. In regards to their levels of performance in text comprehension there was not any significant difference between synthetic and natural speech. Perhaps their observed difficulties in their word/ sentence intelligibility did not manage to restrain their levels of text comprehensibility. It seemed as if the context cues provided by the text each time had assisted dyslexics in comprehending the text more effectively no matter the speech condition used (natural versus synthetic one). Conclusion: Given that the overall purpose of reading is comprehension it is suggested that the text to speech systems could be used after all by the dyslexics as support as scaffolds for the intended purpose of reading comprehension.Implications for rehabilitation This research constitutes a trial to investigate the possibility of text-to-speech technology to serve as an educational aid for students with reading deficits helping them to master reading tasks that they may not have been able to do on their own. Students with reading disabilities need to be more successful in the reading process and managing at the same time to decrease the achievement gap that exists between them and those without disabilities. This work suggests that:• Text-to-speech technology needs further development and improvement to provide a closer to natural speech output in order to be a valuable educational aid for students with dyslexia.• Although there is a deviation, especially, in intelligibility between synthetic and natural speech that kind of assistive technology could provide a useful educational aid for those students that reading tasks appear to be a cumbersome process.• Natural and synthetic speech in combination and in discriminating use (for instance, natural speech in word tasks and synthetic in contextual tasks i.e., reading texts) could be integral tools to numerous educational settings and rehabilitation bodies.

The potential role of home literacy environment (HLE) in children's language development has been widely studied. However, data on the HLE of children with familial risk (FR) of dyslexia are limited. In this longitudinal study, we examined (a) whether amount of book exposure and reading interest at age 4 were different in samples of Norwegian FR and no FR-children, respectively, (b) whether these home literacy-related factors exerted different effects depending on family-risk status on vocabulary and grammar skills at school entry age (6 years) and (c) whether they contributed independently to language outcomes at age 6, after controlling for the 4;6-year language skills. Results showed no significant between-group differences in book exposure and reading interest. Furthermore, while interest in reading did not affect vocabulary and grammar in either group, book exposure contributed to vocabulary skills only in the FR-group by school entry. However, this longitudinal association was mediated by lexical skills at age 4;6, implying that the HLE has a positive indirect effect on later language development through its effect on early language. Thus, these findings can be taken to suggest that early intervention including exposure to various book-reading activities for pre-school FR-children with poor expressive vocabulary is worth considering., (© 2020 The Authors. Dyslexia published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of systematized phonics on word reading in Swedish second grade poor readers. Forty-nine children who performed at or below the 25th percentile on pseudoword reading and/or sight word reading at the beginning of second grade participated in the study. The study had a cross-over design exploring within-and between-group effects of two different conditions: systematized phonics and classroom instruction. Overall, systematized phonics proved more effective than classroom instruction. At pre-intervention, no child performed above the 30th percentile in pseudoword reading or sight word reading. At post-intervention, corresponding numbers were 69% for pseudoword reading and 35% for sight word reading. Implications for a policy change in Sweden towards mandatory systematized phonics in primary school are discussed., (© 2020 The Authors. Dyslexia published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

In this synthesis, we reviewed 65 studies involving elementary students (i.e., grades 1-5) identified with mathematics difficulty (MD) in which authors implemented a mathematics intervention. Of these studies, we identified 33 group designs, 9 quasi-experimental designs, and 23 single-case designs. We aimed to synthesize performance differences between students with MD with and without reading difficulty (RD). We identified three categories of students for analysis: Students with MD+RD, MD-alone, or MD-nonspecified (i.e., no reading information provided). Overall, 80% of studies included students with MD-nonspecified, and the interventions for these students demonstrated strong effects. For the limited number of studies with students with MD+RD or MD-alone, intervention effects were strong for students with MD+RD and variable for students with MD-alone. In the three studies directly comparing the performance of students with MD+RD versus MD-alone, we noted differential patterns of performance. To tailor interventions to student need, more research must be conducted to understand whether students with MD with variable reading profiles respond differentially to mathematics intervention.

Effectiveness of individual and group-based neuropsychological interventions on cognitive aspects of dyslexia in young adults was evaluated. Dyslexic adults were randomly assigned into individual intervention ( n = 40), group intervention ( n = 40), or wait-list control group ( n = 40). The interventions focused on cognitive strategy learning, supporting self-esteem, and using psychoeducation. Cognitive performance and symptoms were assessed via psychometric testing and self-report questionnaires at baseline, after the intervention/wait-list control time at 5 months and at 10 months. And, 15 months post intervention long-term status was checked via mailed inquiry. Wait-list control group also received an intervention after the 5-month control period. No significant effects were found in primary self-report outcome measures. Both interventions had a positive effect on a measure of processing speed and attention and the effect remained after the 5-month follow-up period. In self-reported cognitive symptoms, a positive trend was evident in self-reported reading habits. Furthermore, minor self-evaluated benefits reaching up to 15 months post intervention were found. There were no significant differences between the results of individual and group intervention as both interventions improved cognitive performance. The results indicate that a structured neuropsychological intervention could be effective in ameliorating dyslexia-related cognitive symptoms in young adults.

An intervention study was carried out with two nine-year-old Greek-speaking dyslexic children. Both children were slow in reading single words and text and had difficulty in spelling irregularly spelled words. One child was also poor in non-word reading. Intervention focused on spelling in a whole-word training using a flashcard technique that had previously been found to be effective with English-speaking children. Post-intervention assessments conducted immediately at the end of the intervention, one month later and then five months later showed a significant improvement in spelling of treated words that was sustained over time. In addition, both children showed generalisation of improvement to untrained words and an increase in scores in a standardised spelling assessment. The findings support the effectiveness of theoretically based targeted intervention for literacy difficulties.

Reading interventions developed to teach grapheme-phoneme correspondences (GPCs) were evaluated among L2 at-risk readers. In the direct mapping of grapheme (DMG) condition, children's attention was explicitly drawn to the application of a graphemes taught on that day to shared reading of words in authentic text. In the control condition there was no such systematic daily linkage of the GPCs and texts. The two reading interventions were otherwise identical. Two hundred fifty-three Chinese Grade 1 and Grade 2 students were screened, and those who scored in the bottom 30% of an English word-reading test were identified as L2 at-risk readers. Seventy-one L2 at-risk readers were thus randomly assigned to two conditions, both of which were small-group reading interventions: (a) DMG or (b) taught control. We hypothesized a significant main effect of Intervention condition and significant interaction of Intervention by Phonological Awareness (PA) effects on word reading, word attack, spelling, and sentence comprehension favoring the DMG intervention. Results showed that predicted interaction effects were significant for word reading, spelling, and sentence comprehension. No other effects were significant. Results suggest that the daily Direct Mapping of taught GPCs to shared book reading promotes reading development in at-risk English L2 readers with stronger phonological skills.

Purpose: To develop a Speech-language Pathology (SLP) program and verify its effects on the reading comprehension of dyslexic students., Methods: Participants were eleven 4th and 5th-grade Elementary School students, eight boys and three girls, aged 9-11 years, diagnosed with developmental dyslexia. All individuals underwent the therapeutic program, which was composed of 16 sessions divided into four levels of complexity. A text adapted according to the Cloze technique and reading comprehension and orthography tasks were used in each session. The schoolchildren had their reading comprehension assessed pre- and post-program using a text available at the Test of Reading Comprehension of Expository Texts, adapted for application of the structural Cloze technique without support, according to the Evaluation of Reading Comprehension Levels., Results: The participants showed better performance in reading comprehension at the post-program assessment not only in the filling of blanks in the text adapted according to the Cloze technique and in the Responses to Reading Comprehension Questions, but also in the level of reading comprehension achieved., Conclusion: The SLP program improved the reading comprehension performance and increased motivation to reading of dyslexic schoolchildren. Both the Cloze technique and the Reading Comprehension Questions were useful tools to develop and identify changes in the reading comprehension of the students assessed. This study is relevant because it prepared and verified the effects of a specific remediation program for schoolchildren with dyslexia by proposing the use of texts adapted according to the Cloze technique combined with other various tasks of reading comprehension and orthography.

This study explores the long-term effects of difficulties in reading and mathematical skills on educational achievement and successful graduation from secondary education as well as the role of special education in successful graduation. Study participants were all 16-year-old ninth graders from one Finnish city ( N = 595; 302 females, 293 males) who were followed for 5 years after completing compulsory education. Students' reading and mathematical skills were measured at the end of compulsory education and their achieved grades in literacy and mathematics were received from their upper secondary schools. The overall results show that although part-time special education was available throughout both compulsory and upper secondary education, the negative longitudinal consequences of reading difficulties (RDs) and mathematical difficulties (MDs) on school achievement in literacy, mathematics, and rates of graduation can be seen. The regression path models were estimated separately for female and male students and show that among male students with RDs and MDs, the part-time special education that students received in Grades 7 to 9 was significantly related, but for Grades 10 to 11, this relationship is only significant among students with RDs. Moreover, low levels of school achievement in literacy among female students and in literacy and mathematics among male students significantly increased the likelihood of delayed graduation.

Purpose : Reading and writing applications (with text-to-speech, TTS and speech-to-text, STT functions), used as assistive technology (AT) for students with reading difficulties are increasingly used in education, however, research has not sufficiently enough evaluated its potential. The purpose of this study was to explore how assistive reading and writing applications were perceived to function with regard to students' possibilities to assimilate (i.e., "read") and communicate (i.e., "write") text. Methods : Following a six-week app intervention, this follow-up survey contained 54 special education teachers' perceptions of how the use of apps impacted student motivation, learning, and its usability in special education. A total of 59 students with reading difficulties from Grade 4, Grade 8 and from high school, were assessed. Analyses included quantitative and qualitative analyses of teachers' responses and written material. Results : The results showed individual differences in how teachers perceived app usage for text-interaction purposes, including how app usage affected student motivation and autonomy for text-based learning. Eighty-two per cent of the younger and forty-seven per cent of older students continued to use the technology after the intervention, but in various degrees. Conclusions : Based on these findings, students with reading difficulties seem to be able to use AT in order to assimilate text (i.e., to read) and to communicate text (i.e., to write), and, thus, AT has the potential to promote participation in regular education. Future research should focus on how to customize assistive technology support in order to better utilize the potential.Implication for rehabilitationThis study found that students with reading difficulties could use reading and writing apps (with text-to-speech, TTS and speech-to-text, STT) in portable tables to be able to gain access to, and to produce text in an applied school setting.To use TTS and STT as assistive technology efficiently may require relative extensive support and training, but even with this support, not all students in this study benefited from the potential use of the technology, as the processes of being able to gain access to and to produce text with assistive technology seem to be a difficult process for some of the students.It is proposed that in order to enable all students with reading difficulties possibilities to use assistive technology efficiently, its uses need to be customized even further than was done in this extensive intervention.

Purpose The purpose of our study was to test the hypotheses (a) that children with dyslexia have spoken word learning deficits primarily related to phonology and (b) that children with dyslexia and concomitant developmental language disorder (DLD) have word learning deficits related to both phonology and semantic processing when compared to peers with typical development (TD). Method Second-graders with dyslexia ( n = 82), concomitant dyslexia and DLD (dyslexia + DLD; n = 40), and TD ( n = 167) learned names and semantic features for cartoon monsters in 5 carefully controlled word learning tasks that varied phonological and semantic demands. The computer-based tasks were played in 6 different word learning games. We analyzed results using Bayesian statistics. Results In general, the dyslexia + DLD group showed lower accuracy on tasks compared to the dyslexia and TD groups. As predicted, word learning tasks that taxed phonology revealed deficits in the dyslexia group, although there were some exceptions related to visual complexity. Word learning deficits in the dyslexia + DLD group were present in tasks that taxed phonology, semantic processing, or both. Conclusions The dyslexia + DLD group demonstrated word learning deficits across the range of word learning tasks that tapped phonology and semantic processing, whereas the dyslexia group primarily struggled with the phonological aspects of word learning. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.9807929.

This study examined the role of visual statistical learning in reading and writing and its relationship to orthographic awareness in Hong Kong Chinese children with and without developmental dyslexia. Thirty-five 7- to 8-year-old children with developmental dyslexia and 37 chronologically age-matched controls were tested on visual statistical learning, orthographic awareness, nonverbal cognitive ability, Chinese word reading, and word dictation tasks. Visual statistical learning was assessed using a triplet learning paradigm that required children to detect the temporal order of visual stimuli. Orthographic awareness was measured with a novel character invention task that required children to create pseudocharacters using untaught stroke patterns according to the rules of Chinese character orthography. Children with dyslexia performed significantly worse than their age-matched controls on both the visual statistical learning and orthographic awareness tasks. Furthermore, visual statistical learning was significantly associated with orthographic awareness and word reading. These findings suggest that Chinese children with dyslexia are impaired in visual statistical learning and that such deficits may be related to disrupted orthographic learning abilities, thereby contributing to their reading difficulties., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Rehabilitation procedures recommended for developmental dyslexia (DD) are still not fully defined, and only few studies directly compare different types of training. This study compared a training (Reading Trainer) working on the reading impairment with one (Run the RAN) working on the rapid automatized naming (RAN) impairment, one of the main cognitive deficits associated with DD. Two groups of DD children (N = 45) equivalent for age, sex, full IQ, and reading speed were trained either by Reading Trainer (n = 21) or by Run the RAN (n = 24); both trainings required an intensive home exercise, lasting 3 months. Both trainings showed significant improvements in reading speed and accuracy of passages and words. Bypassing the use of alphanumeric stimuli, but empowering the cognitive processes underlying reading, training RAN may be a valid tool in children with reading difficulties opening new perspectives for children with severe impairments or, even, at risk of reading difficulties., (© 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Learning to read is extremely difficult for about 10% of the children because they are affected by a heritable neurobiological disorder called developmental dyslexia (DD). The causal role of cognitive deficits typically associated to DD can be investigated through intervention studies. It has been demonstrated that visual-attention and reading speed could be simultaneously improved by using action video game (AVG) training both in shallow and deep alphabetic orthographies. Here, in a clinical study we showed that after this general-domain behavioral intervention both the phonological decoding speed and phonological short-term memory were increased only in DD children in which their video game score was improved. These findings confirm that an AVG training enhances the efficiency of both visual and auditory processing. The plasticity of the multi-sensory attentional network could explain the reading and reading-related improvements induced by the AVG training in children with DD., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Noninvasive brain stimulation transiently modulates reading ability in individuals with dyslexia by facilitating the underactive neural pathways in them. However, its long-term effects have not been determined. This study confirmed the ameliorative effects of multiple sessions of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) combined with a training for reading on the reading abilities of children and adolescents with dyslexia and examined whether they are long-lasting. Twenty-six children and adolescents with dyslexia received 3 20-min sessions per week for 6 weeks (18 sessions) of left anodal/right cathodal tDCS, set to 1 mA, over the parieto-temporal regions, combined with training for reading. The participants were randomly assigned to receive active or sham treatment. Reading measures (text, high- and low-frequency words, non-words) were recorded before and immediately after the treatment and 1 and 6 months later. The long-term tolerability to tDCS was also evaluated. The active group received long-lasting benefits in reading. Specifically, the non-word reading efficiency index improved at every time point, as did the low-frequency word reading efficiency index at 1 and 6 months after the end of the treatment. No differences emerged in the sham group. No long-term adverse effects were documented. This study provides evidence of persistent improvements in reading in children and adolescents with dyslexia, constituting a new rehabilitative approach for the remediation of dyslexia., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

After decades of finding a range of cognitive functions both in visual and phonological domains that correlate with reading performance, there are in recent years attempts to solve the causation versus correlation dilemma in finding a core deficit in developmental dyslexia (DD). Thus, longitudinal studies that aim to predict reading difficulties from studies done in pre-reading years and reading-level matched studies that try to factor out the effect due to lack of reading in DD cohorts, have helped identify two possible candidates to be added to the classical phonological suspect. One is a deficit in visuo-spatial attention that underpins our ability to selectively attend to individual objects in a cluttered world, which is fundamental in being able to identify letters and words in a text such as the one you are reading now. The other is an impairment in synchronised neuronal oscillations that may be crucial in mediating many cortical functions and also communication between brain regions. The latter may be a general deficit affecting many areas of the brain and thus underlie the wide-ranging co-morbidities in DD. However, that neuronal synchrony is a critical mediator in visual attention, brings the two suggestions into one hypothesis of a core deficit that triggers in some young children a great reluctance to read, putting them at a handicap in comparison to other children. This deprives them of the advantage that normal readers have in development of those visual and phonological processes that are needed for reading. This insight into aetiology may help in developing new remediation strategies, specifically aimed at improving visual attention and neuronal synchrony., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The existing body of knowledge reveals that customisable websites may lead to an increase in accessibility and usability for people with disabilities. In this way, the main goal of this research was to investigate how people with dyslexia respond to a customised version of a website in terms of its effectiveness, efficiency, satisfaction and suitability when compared to the default version of the website. The customisation of the investigated website was enabled with the aid of integrated assistive technology that offers people with dyslexia the opportunity to adjust a website themselves in accordance with their individual needs, demands and preferences. They can do this by changing the parameters, such as font size, font type and contrast between the background and text. The answers to the research questions were obtained with complementary research methods and techniques, including formal usability testing, thinking aloud protocol, log analyses, questionnaires and interviews. The empirical results show that participants experienced more issues when interacting with the default website, and they enjoyed more benefits when using the customised website. Too much information on the screen, not enough graphic elements, issues with visual appearance and inappropriately presented information were identified as the most common issues when interacting with the default website. When using the customised website, all participants agreed on a better user experience and, as the majority of them reported, this was due to appropriate contrast and font size. Additionally, the majority of participants also expressed desire to use the individual website adjustments regularly in the future. The conclusions of this investigation are that the individual website adjustments used in this research can not only help to minimise issues, but also eliminate challenges that people with dyslexia have when interacting with a website. Therefore, the primary contributions of this research are the empirical insights of interaction with both the default and customised version of the website for people with dyslexia. Furthermore, this research also has three secondary contributions: (1) detailed presentation and application the general usability evaluation procedure to a specific target group (people with dyslexia); (2) recommendations to adapt the usability evaluation methods for people with dyslexia; and (3) the usage of quantitative measurement instruments for the evaluation of a website's usability and suitability for people with dyslexia.

Dyslexia is associated with phonological and visuo-attentional deficits. Phonological interventions improve word accuracy and letter-sound knowledge, but not reading fluency. This systematic review evaluated the effectiveness of dynamic computerized visuo-attentional interventions aimed at improving reading for dyslexic and neurotypical children aged 5-15. Literature searches in Medline, PsycINFO, EMBASE, Scopus, ERIC, PubMed, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library identified 1266 unique articles, of which 18 met inclusion criteria (620 participants; 91.40% dyslexic). Three types of visuo-attentional interventions were identified. Results show that visual perceptual training (n = 5) benefited reading fluency and comprehension, visually-based reading acceleration programs (n = 8) improved reading accuracy and rate, and action video games (n = 5) increased rate and fluency. Visuo-attentional interventions are effective options for treating childhood dyslexia, improving reading generally equal to or greater than other strategies. Initial evidence indicates that visuo-attentional interventions may be efficacious in different orthographies, and improve reading for at least two months after intervention. Larger sample interventions on a wider range of reading skills with follow-up assessment are needed to further clarify their effectiveness., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This experiment examined whether a partial read-aloud accommodation with pacing (PRAP) would improve the reading comprehension of poor decoders but not average decoders compared to standard testing procedures. Participants were 82 third graders with at least average listening comprehension skills: 28 were poor decoders, and 54 were average decoders; mean age 8 years, 9 months (8:9). In the PRAP condition, students' were paced through the Gates MacGinitie reading comprehension test. The examiner read aloud only directions, proper nouns, and questions with multiple choice answers while students read the passages independently. PRAP was compared to a standard testing condition and a pacing only condition. Poor decoders' reading comprehension was significantly higher under PRAP than under either the pacing or standard testing ( p < .01), whereas average decoders did not benefit from the PRAP procedure. Results support PRAP as a valid test accommodation procedure for readers who struggle with decoding but not listening comprehension. Results support the simple view of reading and show its value in the design of test accommodations for a specific type of reading disability.

We examined the efficacy of a content acquisition and reading comprehension intervention implemented in eighth-grade social studies classrooms. Using a within-teacher randomized control design, 18 eighth-grade teachers' social studies classes were randomly assigned to a treatment or comparison condition. Teachers taught all their classes (treatment and comparison) using the same content; however, in the treatment classes, teachers used instructional practices that included comprehension canopy, essential words, knowledge acquisition, and team-based learning. Students with reading comprehension difficulties in the treatment classes ( n  = 359) outperformed students with reading comprehension difficulties in the comparison classes ( n  = 331) on measures of content knowledge acquisition and content reading comprehension but not general reading comprehension. In addition, the proportion of students with reading comprehension difficulties in classes moderated outcomes for content knowledge acquisition and content reading comprehension.

Background: Fluent word reading is a key characteristic of skilled reading, yet most children with reading disorders have impaired word-reading skills. Previous research has demonstrated that multi-component interventions targeting phonemic awareness and the alphabetic principle are effective for children with reading disorders. However, about 25% of children fail to respond to these interventions. While it has been difficult to isolate the active ingredient, the findings of some studies suggest that tasks targeting phonological recoding and orthographic processing are essential elements in improving decoding., Aims: To develop and evaluate an intervention that specifically targets phonological recoding and orthographic processing (a decoding intervention) for children with persistent word-reading impairment., Methods & Procedures: A single-subject crossover design with multiple treatments was used to examine the efficacy of the decoding intervention (15 × 20-min sessions) compared with a language intervention that controlled for individual therapy time. Eight children (aged 7:6-8:11 years) with persistent word-reading impairment were randomly assigned to one of two intervention sequences. The effect of the decoding intervention was evaluated by (1) changes in decoding accuracy measured by performance on researcher-developed non-word lists; and (2) generalization to other standardized measures of reading., Outcomes & Results: The results showed that all participants demonstrated significant gains in non-word reading on researcher-developed non-word lists and standardized measures of non-word-reading accuracy and efficiency. Trends for improvement on standardized measures of word-reading efficiency, text-reading accuracy and reading comprehension were observed., Conclusions & Implications: This decoding intervention significantly improved non-word decoding skills in all participants who had not responded to previous reading interventions. As such, it may be an efficient adjunct to the first stage of reading interventions for this population. The relative lack of generalization to other word-reading skills may have been due to the nature of the outcome measures, the short intervention time and/or additional delays in participant orthographic processing skills., (© 2018 Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists.)

We examine the efficacy of an intervention to improve word reading and reading comprehension in fourth- and fifth-grade students with significant reading problems. Using a randomized control trial design, we compare the fourth- and fifth-grade reading outcomes of students with severe reading difficulties who were provided a researcher-developed treatment with reading outcomes of students in a business-as-usual (BAU) comparison condition. A total of 280 fourth- and fifth-grade students were randomly assigned within school in a 1:1 ratio to either the BAU comparison condition ( n = 139) or the treatment condition ( n = 141). Treatment students were provided small-group tutoring for 30 to 45 minutes for an average of 68 lessons (mean hours of instruction = 44.4, SD = 11.2). Treatment students performed statistically significantly higher than BAU students on a word reading measure (effect size [ES] = 0. 58) and a measure of reading fluency (ES = 0.46). Though not statistically significant, effect sizes for students in the treatment condition were consistently higher than BAU students for decoding measures (ES = 0.06, 0.08), and mixed for comprehension (ES = -0.02, 0.14).

Background: Progressive reading impairment is an early and debilitating symptom of posterior cortical atrophy (PCA) arising from the progressive deterioration of visual processing skills., Objective: The goal of this study was to test the effectiveness of a purpose-built reading app (ReadClear) co-produced with people living with PCA and designed to reduce the reading difficulties experienced by this population (e.g., getting lost in the page and missing words when reading)., Methods: Twenty subjects with PCA were included in a cross-over design home-based study aimed at determining whether ReadClear could 1) enhance the subjective reading experience (reading pleasantness) and 2) improve reading accuracy (reducing the number of reading errors) compared with a sham condition (a standard e-reader)., Results: Reading using ReadClear provided a better subjective reading experience than sham (p = 0.018, d = 0.5) and significantly reduced the percentage of reading errors (p < 0.0001, r = 0.82), particularly errors due to omissions (p = 0.01, r = 0.50), repeated words (p = 0.002, r = 0.69), and regressions in the text (p = 0.003, r = 0.69). We found that different kinds of reading errors were related to specific neuropsychological profiles., Conclusion: ReadClear can assist reading in people living with PCA by reducing the number of reading errors and improving the subjective reading experience of users.

This randomized control trial examined the efficacy of an intervention aimed at improving multisyllabic word reading (MWR) skills among fourth- and fifth-grade struggling readers ( n = 109, 48.6% male), as well as the relative effects of an embedded motivational beliefs training component. This study was a closely aligned replication of our earlier work. The intervention was replicated with a three-condition design: MWR only, MWR with a motivational beliefs component, and business-as-usual control. Students were tutored in small groups for 40 lessons (four 40-min lessons each week). When we combined performance of students in both MWR conditions, intervention students significantly outperformed controls on proximal measures of affix reading and MWR, as well as standardized measures of decoding, spelling, and text comprehension. Furthermore, there was a noted interaction between English learner status and treatment on spelling performance. There were no statistically significant main effects between the MWR groups on proximal or standardized measures of interest. Findings are discussed in terms of their relevance to MWR instruction for students with persistent reading difficulties and considerations for future research related to the malleability of motivation.

Background: Developmental Dyslexia is a disorder, highly frequent in the school population, for which the recommended rehabilitation procedures are not well defined. This study aimed to automatize reading decoding skills by using an innovative system for rehabilitation, based on a telerehabilitation method. It requires an intensive home-exercise with the supervision, by web, of the clinician. The study had three main aims: to diffuse knowledge on new methods for rehabilitation of reading difficulties; to verify whether an intensive and simplified exercise, targeted to the automation of reading, is suitable for different subgroups of dyslexic children; to define the treatment effects on basic cognitive functions underlying reading., Methods: Twenty-five children, grouped according to the neuropsychological and anamnestic profiles, took part to the treatment by the software Reading Trainer®., Results: Both speed and accuracy of reading decoding increased significantly after treatment, independently from the functional neuropsychological profile or the history of oral language delay. These changes were specific to decoding and not associated with improvements in reading comprehension or spelling skills. However, there was a "cascade effect" of the treatment efficacy on those basic cognitive functions considered precursors of the ability to read, with significant improvements in rapid lexical access, phonological processing and visual attention., Conclusions: This study provides information on the efficacy of new tools for telerehabilitation of specific reading disorders.

Background: The reading skills of 16% of children fall below the mean range for their age, and 5% of children have significant and severe reading problems. Phonics training is one of the most common reading treatments used with poor readers, particularly children., Objectives: To measure the effect of phonics training and explore the impact of various factors, such as training duration and training group size, that might moderate the effect of phonics training on literacy-related skills in English-speaking poor readers., Search Methods: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, 12 other databases, and three trials registers up to May 2018. We also searched reference lists of included studies and contacted experts in the field to identify additional studies., Selection Criteria: We included studies that used randomisation, quasi-randomisation, or minimisation to allocate participants to a phonics intervention group (phonics training only or phonics training plus one other literacy-related skill) or a control group (no training or non-literacy training). Participants were English-speaking poor readers with word reading one standard deviation below the appropriate level for their age (children, adolescents, and adults) or one grade or year below the appropriate level (children only), for no known reason. Participants had no known comorbid developmental disorder, or physical, neurological, or emotional problem., Data Collection and Analysis: We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane., Main Results: We included 14 studies with 923 participants in this review. Studies took place in Australia, Canada, the UK, and the USA. Six of the 14 included studies were funded by government agencies and one was funded by a university grant. The rest were funded by charitable foundations or trusts. Each study compared phonics training alone, or in conjunction with one other reading-related skill, to either no training (i.e. treatment as usual) or alterative training (e.g. maths). Participants were English-speaking children or adolescents, of low and middle socioeconomic status, whose reading was one year, one grade, or one standard deviation below the level expected for their age or grade for no known reason. Phonics training varied between studies in intensity (up to four hours per week), duration (up to seven months), training group size (individual and small groups), and delivery (human and computer). We measured the effect of phonics training on seven primary outcomes (mixed/regular word reading accuracy, non-word reading accuracy, irregular word reading accuracy, mixed/regular word reading fluency, non-word reading fluency, reading comprehension, and spelling). We judged all studies to be at low risk of bias for most risk criteria, and used the GRADE approach to assess the quality of the evidence.There was low-quality evidence that phonics training may have improved poor readers' accuracy for reading real and novel words that follow the letter-sound rules (standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.51, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.13 to 0.90; 11 studies, 701 participants), and their accuracy for reading words that did not follow these rules (SMD 0.67, 95% CI 0.26 to 1.07; 10 studies, 682 participants). There was moderate-quality evidence that phonics training probably improved English-speaking poor readers' fluency for reading words that followed the letter-sounds rules (SMD 0.45, 95% CI 0.19 to 0.72; 4 studies, 224 participants), and non-word reading fluency (SMD 0.39, 95% CI 0.10 to 0.68; 3 studies, 188 participants), as well as their accuracy for reading words that did not follow these rules (SMD 0.84, 95% CI 0.30 to 1.39; 4 studies, 294 participants). In addition, there was low-quality evidence that phonics training may have improved poor readers' spelling (SMD 0.47, 95% CI -0.07 to 1.01; 3 studies, 158 participants), but only slightly improve their reading comprehension (SMD 0.28, 95% CI -0.07 to 0.62; 5 studies, 343 participants)., Authors' Conclusions: Phonics training appears to be effective for improving literacy-related skills, particularly reading fluency of words and non-words, and accuracy of reading irregular words. More studies are needed to improve the precision of outcomes, including word and non-word reading accuracy, reading comprehension, spelling, letter-sound knowledge, and phonological output. More data are also needed to determine if phonics training in English-speaking poor readers is moderated by factors such as training type, intensity, duration, group size, or administrator.