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International audience; This article presents an overview of recent advances in remote sensing applied to the study of snow and glacierized areas, in which the French scientific community has been involved. Whatever the type of satellite data, optical, radar, lidar or gravimetric, these works on seasonal or perennial snow cover, mountain glaciers, ice caps, sea ice, and lake or river ice, aim at documenting both the physical characteristics of these objects and their spatial and temporal variability at local, regional or global scales.; Cet article présente une vue d'ensemble des avancées récentes en télédétection spatiale appliquée à l'étude des surfaces enneigées et englacées auxquelles la communauté scientifique française a participé. Qu'ils s'agissent de données satellitaires optique, radar, lidar ou gravimétrique, ces travaux sur la couverture nivale saisonnière ou pérenne, les glaciers de montagne, les calottes polaires, la glace de mer ou de lac et de rivière ont pour objectifs de documenter aussi bien les caractéristiques physiques de ces objets que leur variabilité spatio-temporelle aux échelles locale, régionale ou globale. Abstract Satellite remote sensing of snow and ice-covered surfaces

The thesis proposes a general framework for both state/parameters estimation and sensor placement in nonlinear infinite dimensional hyperbolic systems. The work is therefore divided into two main parts: a first part devoted to the optimal estimation and a second one to optimal sensor location. The estimation method is based on the calculus of variations and the use of Lagrange multipliers. The Lagrange multipliers play an important role in giving access to the sensitivities of the measurements with respect to the variables to be estimated. These sensitivities, described by the adjoint equations, are also the key idea of a new approach, so-called the adjoint-based approach, for the optimal sensor placement. Various examples, either based on some simulations with synthetic measurements or real data sets and for different scenarios, are also studied to illustrate the effectiveness of the developed approaches. Theses examples concern the overland flow systems and the traffic flow, which are both governed by nonlinear hyperbolic partial differential equations., Ce travail de thèse propose une approche générique pour l'estimation de l'état/ des paramètres et pour le placement de capteurs de systèmes hyperboliques non linéaires en dimension infinie. Le travail est donc divisé en deux parties principales : une partie consacrée à l'estimation optimale et une partie dédiée au placement optimal de capteurs. La méthode d'estimation optimale utilise une approche par calcul des variations et utilise la méthode des multiplicateurs de Lagrange. Ces multiplicateurs jouent un rôle important en donnant accès aux sensibilités des mesures par rapport aux variables qui doivent être estimées. Ces sensibilités, décrites par les équations adjointes, sont aussi à l'origine d'une nouvelle approche, dite méthode de l'adjoint, pour le placement optimal de capteurs. Divers exemples, construits sur la base de simulations mais également de données réelles et pour différents scénarios, sont aussi étudiées afin d'illustrer l'efficacité des approches développées. Ces exemples concernent les écoulements à surface libre (en hydrologie des bassins versants) et le trafic routier représentés par des équations aux dérivées partielles hyperboliques non linéaires.

The thesis proposes a general framework for both state/parameters estimation and sensor placement in nonlinear infinite dimensional hyperbolic systems. The work is therefore divided into two main parts: a first part devoted to the optimal estimation and a second one to optimal sensor location. The estimation method is based on the calculus of variations and the use of Lagrange multipliers. The Lagrange multipliers play an important role in giving access to the sensitivities of the measurements with respect to the variables to be estimated. These sensitivities, described by the adjoint equations, are also the key idea of a new approach, so-called the adjoint-based approach, for the optimal sensor placement. Various examples, either based on some simulations with synthetic measurements or real data sets and for different scenarios, are also studied to illustrate the effectiveness of the developed approaches. Theses examples concern the overland flow systems and the traffic flow, which are both governed by nonlinear hyperbolic partial differential equations.; Ce travail de thèse propose une approche générique pour l'estimation de l'état/ des paramètres et pour le placement de capteurs de systèmes hyperboliques non linéaires en dimension infinie. Le travail est donc divisé en deux parties principales : une partie consacrée à l'estimation optimale et une partie dédiée au placement optimal de capteurs. La méthode d'estimation optimale utilise une approche par calcul des variations et utilise la méthode des multiplicateurs de Lagrange. Ces multiplicateurs jouent un rôle important en donnant accès aux sensibilités des mesures par rapport aux variables qui doivent être estimées. Ces sensibilités, décrites par les équations adjointes, sont aussi à l'origine d'une nouvelle approche, dite méthode de l'adjoint, pour le placement optimal de capteurs. Divers exemples, construits sur la base de simulations mais également de données réelles et pour différents scénarios, sont aussi étudiées afin d'illustrer l'efficacité des approches développées. Ces exemples concernent les écoulements à surface libre (en hydrologie des bassins versants) et le trafic routier représentés par des équations aux dérivées partielles hyperboliques non linéaires.

The aim of this methodological study was to quantify differences between water potential measured with a pressure chamber (PC) and with a hydraulic press (HP) in six north Sahelian dominant species of the woody strata across the range of their local environmental conditions in the Malian Gourma. Mean annual rainfall is 372 mm, falling from June to September, followed by 8–10 months of dry season. The daily course of Leaf Water Potential (LWP) was monitored in 2–6 m tall healthy individuals. Water potential measured with the two instruments were statistically comparable (R² > 40%) except in A. senegal. However, the HP under-estimated LWP and revealed smaller ranges of water potential than the PC. In the Sahelian shrubs studied here, for the precise measurement of a water potential gradient in the soil–plant-atmosphere continuum and for inter-specific comparisons, the PC is more appropriate than the HP. However, the HP may be useful for intra-species comparison in large sampled fields, since calibrations will be checked across a wider range of dates and a large number of sites.

Small portable rainfall simulators are considered a useful tool to analyze soil erosion processes in cultivated lands. European research groups in Spain (Valencia, Málaga, Lleida, Madrid and La Rioja), France (Reims) and Germany (Trier) have used different rainfall simulators (varying in drop size distribution and fall velocities, kinetic energy, plot forms and sizes, and field of application) to study soil loss, surface flow, runoff and infiltration coefficients in different experimental plots (Valencia, Montes de Málaga, Penedès, Campo Real and La Rioja in Spain, Champagne in France and Mosel-Ruwer valley in Germany). The measurements and experiments developed by these research teams give an overview of the variety of methodologies used in rainfall simulations to study the problem of soil erosion and describe the erosion features in different climatic environments, management practices and soil types. The aims of this study are: (i) to investigate where, how and why researchers from different wine-growing regions applied rainfall simulations with successful results as a tool to measure soil erosion processes; (ii) to make a qualitative comparison about the general soil erosion processes in European terroirs; (iii) to demonstrate the importance of the development of standard method for measurement of soil erosion processes in vineyards, using rainfall simulators; and (iv) and to analyze the key factors that should be taken into account to carry out rainfall simulations. The rainfall simulations in all cases allowed infiltration capacity, susceptibility of the soil to detachment and generation of sediment loads to runoff to be determined. Despite using small plots, the experiments were useful to analyze the influence of soil cover to reduce soil erosion, to make comparisons between different locations, and to evaluate the influence of different soil characteristics. The comparative analysis of the studies performed in different study areas points out the need to define an operational methodology to carry out rainfall simulations, which allows us to obtain representative and comparable results and to avoid errors in the interpretation in order to achieve comparable information about runoff and soil loss., We acknowledge support by the CSIC Open Access Publication Initiative through its Unit of Information Resources for Research (URICI)., We acknowledge all the co-authors for the fast and friendly response to take part in this paper and their useful suggestions and corrections. Furthermore, we also thank the Caixa-Bank and DAAD (Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst) for the Scholarship grant awarded to J. Rodrigo-Comino.

Le barrage d'El Haouareb est situé en Tunisie centrale, dans une zone caractérisée par un climat semi-aride. Il draine le bassin versant de l'oued Merguellil d'une superficie d'environ 1 200 km2. Le but de cette recherche est d'évaluer, à partir du bilan du barrage, l'impact de la mise en place de cet ouvrage sur les ressources en eau de surface et souterraine, en vue de mieux cerner le fonctionnement de l'ensemble de ce système et faciliter ainsi sa gestion.Le bilan en eau de surface fait appel à deux termes non mesurés : l'infiltration à travers la cuvette de la retenue et les apports des oueds incomplètement contrôlés. Par une méthodologie originale, nous avons modélisé et calculé l'infiltration. Les apports journaliers au barrage, déduits du bilan ont été ensuite validés par comparaison aux débits mesurés sur une station située, plus en amont, sur le tributaire principal.Cette recherche a mis en évidence que, malgré des pertes non négligeables par évaporation (25% des apports), l'infiltration constitue, de loin, le terme le plus important du bilan de la retenue d'El Haouareb (63% des apports).Cette dernière a ainsi injecté, directement ou par nappe interposée, dans l'aquifère aval de la plaine de Kairouan plus de 9 millions de m3 par an., The El Haouareb dam and the neighbouring dams (Nebhana and Sidi Saâd) were constructed with the objective of protecting the inhabitants of the Kairouan plain from floods. This area constitutes the natural downstream region of three principal wadis of central Tunisia (Merguellil, Nebhana and Zeroud) where there have been floods in the past. The second objective of this dam is to control the recharge of the Kairouan groundwater aquifer in the absence of natural wadi flows, by diverting flows from the dam and by infiltration through the foundation and basin of the dam. In a semi-arid region characterized by very strong evaporation and plant transpiration rates (about 1700 mm per year), it is obviously of great importance to recharge the underground water systems, which are less subject to these kinds of losses and which better preserve the water resources. The last objective of this dam is to supply water to the population, especially for agricultural needs. The dam was expected to supply water to an irrigated area of about 2500 hectares in this region. During the construction of the El Haouareb dam spillway, underground flows occurred in the limestone of the El Haouareb Hill. At the beginning of the exploitation of the dam these underground flows increased. This development has affected the management plans for the dam and accordingly a monitoring program has been put in place to follow of the evolution over time of the infiltration. The purpose of this research was to evaluate, by the water balance method, the impact of the construction of this dam on surface and ground water. This research will improve the understanding of the system, and thus, facilitate management. In addition, this project will evaluate recharge rates towards the groundwater reserves of the Kairouan plain, which constitutes the natural downstream region of this system.The dam is situated at an interface of several superficial and underground hydraulic systems. For surface water, the El Haouareb dam drains the Merguellil wadi catchment whose surface area is about 1200 km2. Besides the Merguellil wadi, two of its tributaries flow directly into the El Haouareb dam (Hammam and Ben Zitoune wadis) but without any measurement of their flows. Nevertheless, two hydrometric stations were established on the Merguellil wadi, upstream of El Haouareb dam: Haffouz in 1966 and Sidi Boujdaria in 1974. The first station is still functional whereas the second one stopped working in 1989. For underground systems, the Aïn Baïdha groundwater located upstream from the dam, and the downstream groundwater of the Kairouan plain constitute the principal aquifers in relation to this dam. A third aquifer of the El Haouareb hill, composed mainly of limestone, was also identified. It receives both Aïn Baïdha groundwater and infiltrations from the El Haouareb dam, and empties towards the groundwater of the Kairouan plain. A daily database of El Haouareb dam management, collected by the agricultural ministry, was available. The data-base contained the following elements: rainfall amounts for the site; water levels in the dam; evaporation rates measured by a Colorado tub; three states of the physical characteristics of dam measured before the beginning of exploitation (1989) and during two drying times of the dam (1994 and 1997); releases from the dam for irrigation; releases from the dam to fight against siltation of the dam and to recharge the Kairouan plain aquifer. There were also rain data measured from the surrounding rain gages and hydrometric data observed at the Haffouz and Sidi Boujdaria stations. The water balance equation of this dam presents two unknowns: the infiltration from the dam and the flows that arrive in the dam by wadis. To resolve these unknowns, we proceeded by minimizing one of the two unknowns with a goal to determine the other one.As infiltration rates were inaccessible, we worked on periods without flows, chosen according to four criteria. During these periods the rain on the dam and on the surrounding rain gages must be equal to 0 mm, the flows measured at the upstream station of Haffouz must be inferior or equal to 50 L/s, and the variation of the water level in the dam must always be decreasing. Finally, the fourth criterion is that the length of these periods that must be equal or greater than 15 d. Thus we were able to calculate the infiltration flows during the periods without flows. These values were corrected by adding the low water flows, which were assumed to arrive at the dam. These flows were calculated by a linear equation established between the low water flows at the Haffouz and Sidi Boujdaria stations. The representation of this calculated infiltration according to the water level in the dam gave a cluster of points from which three simple linear adjustments were done. Thus, we obtained a model composed of three linear equations that represented the changes in infiltration as a function of time. This model showed that the infiltration flow ratecorresponding to a particular level, decreased with time as sedimentation in the dam proceeded. For the daily average level (206 meters), the infiltration rate passed from 650 L/s in 1989 to 310 L/s in 1998.Despite the scarcity of "periods without flows" between 1989 and 1991, and some uncertainties due essentially to the measurement of water levels in the dam, this model is representative of reality because it takes into account the evolution of sedimentation in the dam. The model yielded infiltration flow rates that were higher than those calculated in preceding studies. The infiltration model obtained was then applied to the entire period of study, allowing resolution of the water balance equation for the dam (which now has only one unknown): the flows of the different wadis arriving in the dam.In conclusion, this research showed that despite considerable losses by evaporation (25% of flows), infiltration (accounting for 63% of flows) constituted the more important term in the water balance of the El Haouareb dam. This dam has thus injected, directly or via the interposed limestone aquifer, more than 9 million m3 per year into the downstream groundwater of the Kairouan plain.

International audience; The Wankama endoreic system in the region of Niamey (Niger), monitored over the period 1992–2000, is studied with r.water.fea, a physically-based, spatially-distributed rainfall–runoff model. Catchment characteristics and data, together with model principles and construction, are described in Peugeot et al. [J. Hydrol., 2003], who used the uncalibrated model as one of several investigation tools for the screening of rainfall–runoff observations. This second paper focuses on model calibration and verification, namely the methods and criteria used to that end followed by the results thereby obtained. Based on a diagnostic function that combines errors in runoff volumes and in peak discharges, calibration is performed by exploring a 3D parameter space. A resampling-based cross-validation technique is used to investigate calibration stability with respect to data sample fluctuations, and to assess the predictive capabilities of the calibrated model. The issues of parameter uncertainty, sample representativeness, and presence of influential observations, are discussed. An empirical, non-parametric method is devised to characterize parameter uncertainty and to assign intervals to volume predictions. Model verification is performed against the data from the last two seasons. Internal catchment behavior, as produced by the model, appears qualitatively consistent with field information, including a weak upper-area contribution to catchment outflow due to large runoff abstraction by the conveying hydrographic network.

Soil surface characteristics (SSCs) have a strong influence on the infiltration properties at the soil surface. They can explain spatial variations in the infiltration processes observed under natural rainfall for relatively little-differentiated material and can help us to understand the surface and subsurface hydrology of landslides, representative of some of black marls landscapes of the French southern Alps. This paper presents the results of investigations into the influence of SSCs using careful morphological description, in situ tension-disc infiltrometry and statistical analysis (hierarchical ascending classification and stepwise discriminant analysis). The site studied is the Super-Sauze earthflow. The selected infiltration and runoff variables were described for 233 microplots chosen all over the earthflow. The results show that an approach based on a description of relevant variables influencing water infiltration can validate a typology based on ‘expert’ knowledge. Hydraulic conductivity at saturation was measured on 36 undisturbed soil cores and at low negative pressure heads on 83 microplots: the dispersion exceeds three orders of magnitude at each pressure head. A statistical analysis of the data set obtained by describing selected variables showed the relevance of the black marl descriptors when defining types of SSC that enable us to distinguish significant hydrodynamical behaviour. This leads us to suggest a distribution of hydraulic conductivity curves near saturation for each SSC type, which can be used as a key to distribute local hydraulic conductivity values adapted to black marl hillslopes. As well as the types of SSC at a microplot scale leading to types of hydrodynamic properties, the typology of combinations of SSCs at a coarser scale should lead to types of hydrological response and to identification of hydrological and geomorphological response units. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Le bassin du lac Tchad est un vaste bassin endoréique de 2 380 000 km2 entouré par des reliefs datés du Précambrien au Cénozoïque (regroupant les ères tertiaire et quaternaire) : massif du Hoggar, plateau du Djado, massif du Tibesti, plateau des Erdis au nord, Aïr, Seuil du Damergou, massif du Damagaram, plateau de Jos, monts Mandara, plateaux de l'Adamaoua et de Ndélé, massifs du Guéra, du Ouaddaï et de l'Ennedi. Le lac Tchad se situe sur un palier du flanc sud-ouest du bassin. Ce palier correspond à l'intersection de deux accidents majeurs liés à l'orogenèse panafricaine affectant le socle précambrien et réactivés au Crétacé. Le comblement de cette vaste cuvette d'origine tectonique a été alimenté par des matériaux détritiques issus du démantèlement des massifs périphériques, puis transportés vers le centre du bassin par des écoulements de surface lors des périodes humides, et/ou poussés vers le sud-ouest par les vents dominants lors des périodes arides. La morphologie actuelle au centre de la cuvette (plane et sableuse) est donc essentiellement contrôlée par les structures profondes du bassin et par la dynamique éolienne. Ainsi, le réseau hydrographique, actuel comme fossile, est généralement guidé par des failles, masquées par la couverture superficielle sableuse. C'est dans ce cadre structural et éolien que s'inscrivent les dépôts aquatiques fluviatiles, palustres, lacustres ou évaporitiques. Les reliefs et les dynamiques morpho-climatiques du bassin du lac Tchad définissent ainsi une morphologie très particulière résultant de l'impact conjugué de la tectonique et de la dynamique éolienne qui dessinent le cadre de la sédimentation aquatique. (Résumé auteur)

The micro-topography of a groundnut plot in Senegal has been recorded over a full cultivation cycle, using an automated device able to measure 16.2 m2 at every 5 cm with an accuracy of 1 mm. Tillage is horse drawn, perpendicular to the general slope, and generates oriented microreliefs. Surface Storage Capacity (SSC) was calculated on both raw and slope-detrended surfaces. Additionally, various boundary conditions (BC) were used: no-wall; three-wall (up, left and right); or mirror (the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) surrounded by eight alternately reversed images of itself). SSC is more affected by these variants than by the variations of microrelief itself. Whatever the calculation method, SSC (as well as random roughness), follows a decreasing exponential with cumulated rainfall, but the coefficients of the exponential differ widely to each other. This suggests that SSC values could be of little use when they are obtained on various slopes, arbitrarily detrended or not, and calculated with arbitrary BC. We suggest a simple geometric model to characterise the way microrelief empties as the slope increases. The model has two calibrated depth-ratio parameters, one in each direction. It gives a more coherent framework for calculation and use of SSC. The model was applied to one of the DEMs of the data set, sampled after the first rain following hoeing. With the mirror-BC and detrended slope, SSC was 3.6 mm. Microrelief was found to behave in the same proportions, when tilted, than a tetrahedral container 94 times wider than deeper in the tillage direction and 11 times perpendicularly. This model represents the volume of surface water that cannot flow in any direction. With three-wall-BC, SSC was 6.7 mm, 1.4 mm remaining on the plot whatever the slope angle, and 5.3 mm behaving the same as a container 69 times wider than deeper. A possible use of this model is illustrated with an attempt to upscale the sampled plot to the watershed to which it belongs.

International audience; Themodeling of soil erosion by water supposes an accurate and thorough understanding of the hydrology. Thus, it is critical to have a good delineation of the surface flow path. The flow network data are critical for important uses such as flood forecasting and watershed management. Geographic Information System (GIS) functions are able to compute a flow network directly from the digital elevation models. Because the flow directions are only based on the topography, the other factors controlling the flow directions are overlooked. In the agricultural areas, work such as tillage can have a large impact on the flow direction. We propose a 5-step procedure to account for such man-made features. The use of this procedure clearly improves the quality of the computed flow network. This procedure has been successfully implemented in a GIS and improves the prediction of surface flow and therefore improves water erosion modeling at the watershed scale.

International audience; Uncertainty analysis may be of high importance in the field of water engineering. Sampling-based techniques, that resort to extensive exploration of the space of possible model inputs are a common approach. When inputs uncertainties can be described statistically by means of probability distribution functions, Monte Carlo simulation yields a statistical description of uncertain model outputs. However, the combination of commonly encountered input space dimensions and model CPU times often makes this approach hardly practicable. We propose to assess the potential of a local sensitivity analysis for uncertainty analysis in the modelling of open channel flows with the one-dimensional shallow water equations, which are generally viewed as being largely non linear. The first-order local sensitivity is simply assessed using the so-called empirical method requiring only two runs of the model (for a single uncertain parameter). The global sampling-based approach consists in running Monte Carlo simulations with the hydrodynamic model, given a statistical distribution of the model input parameters. Monte Carlo results can be analysed through classical statistical estimators, such as mean and standard deviation. It is shown that these characteristics can also be accurately estimated from the local sensitivity and the input distribution. Steady state and highly transient configurations (gate opening and closing) are explored, accounting for uncertainty of the main parameters (bottom slope, friction coefficient, boundary and initial conditions).; Sensibilité locale pour l'analyse d'incertitude dans la modélisation 1D des écoulements à surface libre en canal L'analyse d'incertitude joue un rôle important dans les domaines de l'ingénierie de l'eau. Les techniques classiques sont basées sur l'échantillonnage et l'exploration extensive de l'espace des paramètres du modèle. Lorsque l'incertitude des paramètres peut être décrite statistiquement par des fonctions de distribution de probabilité, l'approche Monte Carlo permet d'obtenir une description statistique des résultats du modèle. Cependant, les dimensions généralement rencontrées pour l'espace des paramètres associées au temps CPU de simulation des modèles rendent souvent cette approche difficilement utilisable. On propose d'évaluer les potentiels d'une analyse de sensibilité locale pour l'analyse d'incertitude, dans le cas de la modélisation à surface libre dans un cannal par les équations "shallow water" 1D, qui sont généralement considérées comme fortement non linéaires. La sensibilité locale de premier ordre est simplement calculée par la méthode dite empirique, qui ne nécessite que deux simulations du modèle (lorsqu'un seul paramètre est incertain). L'approche globale, basée sur un échantillonnage de l'espace des paramètres, consiste à générer des simulations de Monte Carlo avec le modèle hydrodynamique, à partir 1 d'une distribution statistique des paramètres d'entrée. Les résultats des simulations de Monte Carlo peuvent être analysés à travers des estimateurs statistiques classiques comme la moyenne ou l'écart-type. On montre que ces caractéristiques peuvent également être estimées à partir de la sensibilité locale et de la distribution du paramètre d'entrée. Des configurations en régime permanent ou hautement transitoires (ouverture et fermeture de vannes) sont explorées, avec prise en compte de l'incertitude sur les principaux paramètres (pente du fond, coefficient de frottement, conditions initiales et aux limites).

International audience; We introduce here a shallow water model for the numerical simulation of overland flow with furrows effects without representing them explicitly. The model is obtained by adding to the classical shallow water equations a friction term that takes into account these effects. We validate the model with some numerical tests and we present comparisons with simulations computed with the classical shallow water model where the furrows are explicitly described.

22 ref.; International audience

Central and West Africa were affected by an often marked reduction in rainfall and runoff around the year 1970. Has the behaviour of the catchments in these regions been changed as a result? Seventeen basins are used in this study, and are characterised by stationary or non-stationary annual rainfall or runoff time-series. An approach based on lumped hydrological modelling with a monthly time step (GR2M water balance model) and automatic parameter calibration is used to try to answer the question. Parameter stability of the models calibrated before and after the occurrence of possible rainfall or runoff deficit is analysed using estimations of confidence region. Minimisation of the least squares objective function provides a local optimum around which confidence regions are estimated in a non-linear context. The volumes of indifference represented by the confidence regions are analysed by their cross-sections on the planes defined by the three parameters of the model taken in pairs. For each basin, the cross-sections relative to different periods of calibration are interpreted in terms of possible parameter stability. This study shows that there is no link between parameter stability and the stationary behaviour of rainfall or runoff series of some catchments.

Fungicide treatments have led to large copper contents of the topsoils of most vineyards. This paper examines the contamination of surface waters by copper in a Mediterranean wine-growing catchment. Its aims were to characterise the forms of copper associated with suspended matter during a heavy autumn storm event and to identify which soils contribute the most to the copper exports. A mixing model involving three reservoirs, corresponding to three soil-landscape units (plateau, terraces and footslope-depression system) and two tracers (reducible iron content and dolomite/calcite ratio) was used to estimate the contribution of each reservoir to erosion during a storm flow. The average copper concentration of the suspended matter was 245 mg kg−1, of which 1% was exchangeable, 4% acid-soluble, 10% oxidizable, 23% reducible and 63% residual. The soils of the plateau of the catchment (chromic luvisols and haplic calcisols—FAO soil classification) were the source of 42% of copper exports but represented only 27% of the total catchment area.

In a subtropical mountain of northern Mexico, soils and slopes seem to have a hortonian functioning, as it is commonly observed in other tropical or subtropical areas. So it is important to know previous soil moisture before any rainfall event in order to properly estimate the runoff coefficients and to get a better understanding of the hydrologic behaviour of the catchments. A very simple deterministic model, named NAZASM, is developed and tested for 6 microplots (1 and 10 m2), 13 plots (50 m2) and 5 catchments (1–50 km2). It is based on the ‘antecedent precipitation index’ with an exponential decay parameter (α) into the rainfall–runoff relationship. Measurements of rainfall and runoff were made during four rainy seasons. Between 22 and 157 rain events were considered in the analysis, depending on the sizes of the plots and catchments. ‘NAZASM’ gives reasonable estimations of runoff if the calibration data set includes events occurring during wet and dry years, due to the difference of hydrological processes involved in these two situations. All the results have shown that the use of such a model significantly improves the explained variances between measured runoff and rainfall as compared to classical regression analysis, whatever the size of plots and catchments are. The α soil water content decay parameter which in theory is a soil characteristic, appeared in fact to be scale dependent.

The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the possibility of using the diffusion equation for raindrop erosion modelling. We wanted in particular to know if such a model could provide accurate interpolations of microrelief between two known dates. In a theoretical section, we show that the assumption that soil particles follow parabolic trajectories when splashed by raindrop impacts leads to a diffusion equation. This equation suggests a linear relation between Dz, the variation of height between two dates, and the Laplacianr 2 z (r 2 za@ 2 z/@x 2 a@ 2 z/@y 2 ). This relation is confirmed by data from a simulated rainfall experiment carried out in the sandy soils of the Senegalese groundnut belt. Four square plots of side 4 m each were used. They were hoed with a traditional horse-drawn three-tined hoe. Three rains of 70 mm h ˇ1 lasting 30 min each were applied. An automated relief meter designed and constructed by the authors was used to measure the distribution of heights for every 5 cm before the first rain, and after the first and the third rains. The mean correlation coefficient of the model was 62% for the first rain and 46% for the next two rains. Besides raindrop erosion, compaction occurred during the first rain. Adding a crude description of compaction enhanced the mean of the correlation coefficients of the model up to 70% for the first rain. Furthermore, the coefficient of variation of the four adjusted total diffusion lessens from 10 to 6%. The simulated surfaces were smoother than the real ones, which was an expected result, but the surface storage capacity was overestimated. The latter result illustrates the role of runoff in shaping the flow paths it follows and, consequently, in lessening the surface storage capacity. The main conclusion is that the diffusion equation provides a promising frame for further development of models simulating microrelief evolution during rainfall. Another conclusion is that these models should integrate existing routines for runoff erosion at small scale in order to simulate surfaces with realistic hydraulic properties. # 2000 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

La variabilité spatio-temporelle des principales composantes du cycle hydrologique sont prises en compte dans le modèle MODBAM (Modèle de Bassin Aménagé) adapté aux conditions hydro-climatiques de la zone soudano-sahélienne. Ce modèle à discrétisation spatiale permet de simuler les écoulements de surface sur un bassin versant comportant des ouvrages hydrauliques et des aménagements hydro-agricoles. Deux schémas conceptuels de calcul du bilan hydrique des sols sont utilisés pour distinguer l'état de l'importance de la couverture végétale quel que soit le type de sol avec une possibilité de reprise à la nappe : l'un privilégie le ruissellement sur un sol nu ou à faible végétation, l'autre, l'infiltration et l'évapotranspiration sur un sol très couvert. (Résumé d'auteur)

The Midouze basin : a hydrological system with contrasted resources. The importance and evolution of water resources in the hydrological system of the Midouze watershed (France — Western Aquitaine) tend to vary a lot in time and space. Strong contrasts appear between the Armagnac Hills (South-East of the studied area) and the Landes plateau (rest of the area). Though the location of rainfall plays a part, the main factor is the heterogeneity of the hydrological structure., L'importance et l'évolution des ressources d'eau du système hydrologique du bassin de la Midouze (France — Aquitaine occidentale) sont fort variables dans le temps et dans l'espace. Des contrastes marqués opposent en particulier le secteur des coteaux armagnacais (sud-est du secteur considéré) et le secteur du plateau landais (portions restantes). Si les caractéristiques spatiales des précipitations contribuent à certains égards à cette situation, la responsabilité principale en incombe à l'hétérogénéité de la structure hydrologique., Gonot Bertrand. Diversité des terroirs et ressources en eau : l'exemple de la Midouze (France du Sud-Ouest) . In: Annales de Géographie, t. 107, n°604, 1998. pp. 571-589.

Une méthode de découpage d'hydrogramme faisant intervenir quatre écoulements (nappe profonde, nappe superficielle, ruissellement hypodermique différé, ruissellement de surface) est présentée ici, utilisant un échantillonnage serré sur les eaux du bassin amont du Niger, à l'exutoire de Bamako (Mali). On a fait l'hypothèse que la composition de chaque réservoir reste constante, alors que la contribution des différents écoulements est variable tout au long du cycle hydrologique. Le pourcentage d'écoulement revenant à chacun des quatre résevoirs est déterminé point par point, moyennant certaines hypothèses sur les concentrations des traceurs choisis. (Résumé d'auteur)