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Since prion diseases result from infection and neurodegeneration of the central nervous system (CNS), experimental characterizations of prion strain properties customarily rely on the outcomes of intracerebral challenges. However, natural transmission of certain prions, including those causing chronic wasting disease (CWD) in elk and deer, depends on propagation in peripheral host compartments prior to CNS infection. Using gene-targeted GtE and GtQ mice, which accurately control cellular elk or deer PrP expression, we assessed the impact that peripheral or intracerebral exposures play on CWD prion strain propagation and resulting CNS abnormalities. Whereas oral and intraperitoneal transmissions produced identical neuropathological outcomes in GtE and GtQ mice and preserved the naturally convergent conformations of elk and deer CWD prions, intracerebral transmissions generated CNS prion strains with divergent biochemical properties in GtE and GtQ mice that were changed compared to their native counterparts. While CWD replication kinetics remained constant during iterative peripheral transmissions and brain titers reflected those found in native hosts, serial intracerebral transmissions produced 10-fold higher prion titers and accelerated incubation times. Our demonstration that peripherally and intracerebrally challenged Gt mice develop dissimilar CNS diseases which result from the propagation of distinct CWD prion strains points to the involvement of tissue-specific cofactors during strain selection in different host compartments. Since peripheral transmissions preserved the natural features of elk and deer prions, whereas intracerebral propagation produced divergent strains, our findings illustrate the importance of experimental characterizations using hosts that not only abrogate species barriers but also accurately recapitulate natural transmission routes of native strains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to synthesise and interpret stable isotopic data (δ2H and δ18O) from various sources to understand the isotope hydrology around coal mine operations in Elk Valley, B.C., Canada. The data, including precipitation, groundwaters, seeps, and mine rock drains, were used to construct a local meteoric water line (LMWL) for the Elk Valley, evaluate the spatiotemporal isotopic composition of its groundwater, and assess mine seepage and mine rock drain discharge. The study revealed a robust LMWL relation (δ2H = 7.4 ± 0.2 · δ18O – 4.3 ± 4.1). The groundwater and seep data indicated a winter season bias and a north–south latitudinal gradient, suggesting rapid near-surface groundwater flow without significant post-precipitation evaporation. Porewater isotope samples from unsaturated mine rock piles (MRPs) showed site-specific evaporation patterns, potentially due to convective air flows or exothermic sulphide oxidation. This research revealed the influence of groundwater and meltwater on rock drain discharge. Based on evaporative mass balance calculations, MRPs seasonally contributed ca. 5 %(December base flow) and 22 % (snowmelt) to drain discharge. The findings underscore the value of stable isotope data collections in the Elk Valley to help better define and quantify the hydrology–hydrogeology, including a better understanding of evaporative conditions in MRPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parturition timing has long been a topic of interest in ungulate research. However, few studies have examined parturition timing at fine scale (e.g., <1 day). Predator activity and environmental conditions can vary considerably with diel timing, which may result in selective pressure for parturition to occur during diel times that maximize the likelihood of neonate survival. We monitored parturition events and early‐life survival of elk (Cervus canadensis) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in Utah, USA to better understand diel timing of parturition in temperate ungulates. Diel timing of parturition was moderately synchronous among conspecifics and influenced by environmental variables on the date of parturition. For elk, parturition events were most common during the morning crepuscular period and generally occurred later (i.e., closer to 12:00) when a relatively large proportion of the moon was illuminated. For mule deer, parturition events were most common during the diurnal period and generally occurred later (i.e., closer to 15:00) on cold, wet dates. Diel timing of parturition did not influence neonate survival, but larger datasets may be required to verify the apparent lack of influence. Although additional work could evaluate alternative variables that might affect parturition timing, our data provide an improved and finer scale understanding of reproductive ecology and phenology in ungulates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species reintroductions have the potential to cause genetic bottleneck events resulting in increased genetic drift, increased inbreeding, and reduced genetic diversity creating negative fitness consequences for populations. Roosevelt elk (Cervus canadensis roosevelti Erxleben, 1777) are "at risk" in British Columbia (BC), Canada. Once widespread along the west coast, Roosevelt elk were likely extirpated from the mainland by 1900 and experienced a substantial population bottleneck on Vancouver Island at that time, and again in the 1950s. Reintroduced to the mainland from Vancouver Island in the 1980s, this re-established population became the source for subsequent mainland translocations. To understand the effects of reintroduction strategy on genetic diversity, we analyzed genetic variation in 355 Roosevelt elk from Vancouver Island and mainland BC. Using mitochondrial DNA and 10 microsatellite loci, molecular analyses showed overall reduced genetic diversity relative to other extant elk populations, genetic isolation of the southern Vancouver Island population, and increased genetic drift among reintroduced herds. Four reintroduced populations were found to have increased levels of inbreeding. Results of this study contribute to our knowledge of reintroduction biology and can be used to guide continued conservation and management of at-risk species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biospheres are working landscapes that promote conservation and sustainable land-use while also providing space for outdoor recreation, environmental education, and research. This study focuses on Elk Island National Park in Alberta, Canada, which is part of the Beaver Hills Biosphere. The park is home to bison and black bears and growing visitor numbers have increased the potential for human-wildlife conflict. With a focus on the promotion of human-wildlife coexistence, this study takes a mixed-methods approach to develop and evaluate an environmental education program targeted to improve visitor awareness about safety around bison and bears at Elk Island National Park. The program was found to be effective in teaching visitors about safe behaviors around wildlife and key themes arose about important learning outcomes. In particular, the findings indicate interpretation and environmental education programs have the potential to increase awareness about safety for both humans and wildlife and shift away from more human-centric perceptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Expanding human pressure has reduced natural habitats globally and motivated strategies to conserve remaining natural habitats. Decisions about conservation on private lands, however, are typically made by local stakeholders who are motivated by the elements of nature they most highly value. Thus, national prioritization for conservation should be complemented by local analysis of species or habitats that most influence local landowner decisions. We demonstrate within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem how quantitative mapping of wildlife species that are highly valued by local residents can be integrated with indices of ecosystem integrity to prioritize private lands for conservation. We found that natural vegetation cover (NVC) comprised 81% of the private lands. Some watersheds have lost 6% of NVC since 2001 and developed lands now cover >40% of their areas. Locations high in ecological value, elk habitat, and grizzly habitat occurred in different biophysical settings. Consequently, only 2% of the NVC supports high levels of all three biodiversity measures and 26% of this area was within conservation easements. The remaining areas of high biodiversity value that are unprotected are priorities for conservation. We suggest that national-scale conservation planning will be most effective on private lands if additional within-ecoregion analyses are done on the elements of biodiversity that are most valued by local people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) landscapes are valued for their biodiversity, water retention, fire mitigation, aesthetics, and recreation opportunities. Across North America, some aspen populations are experiencing population declines as they face uninhibited ungulate browsing, drought, fire suppression, insects, disease, and inappropriate management. Increased human development and recreational use within aspen landscapes can serve as additive stressors, though there is a dearth of literature examining these elements. At a popular recreational area in Utah, USA, identifying the cause of apparent decline within a larger aspen community is complicated by development upstream and recreation-related activities. We sought to (1) assess the overall condition of the aspen at the site, (2) understand key variables that influence aspen conditions, and (3) elucidate how aspen fitness varies across the site. We collected data from forty-five plots using established aspen sampling methods, including ungulate presence, tree characteristics, soil chemistry, and environmental descriptors. Results suggest that a combination of higher levels of browsing and elevated soil sodium may be causing premature mortality and limiting aspen recruitment in a portion of the study area. These findings will inform future management at this site, as well as similar recreational forest settings experiencing compound stressors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Treponeme-Associated Hoof Disease (TAHD) is a polybacterial, multifactorial disease affecting free-ranging wild elk (Cervus canadensis) in the Pacific Northwest. Previous studies have indicated a bacterial etiology similar to digital dermatitis in livestock, including isolation of Treponema species from lesions. The lesions appear to progress rapidly from ulcerative areas in the interdigital space or along the coronary band to severe, ulcerative, necrotic, proliferative lesions under-running the hoof wall, perforating the sole, and contributing to hoof elongation, deformity, and overgrowth. Eventually the lesions undermine the laminal structure leading to sloughing of the hoof horn capsule. The objective of this study was to characterize the bacterial communities associated with hoof lesions, which were categorized into 5 stages or disease grade severities, with 0 being unaffected tissue and 4 being sloughed hoof capsule. We also wanted to determine if the etiology of TAHD through morphological changes was dominated by Treponema, as observed in hoof diseases in livestock. Results The bacterial 16S rRNA gene was sequenced from 66 hoof skin biopsy samples representing 5 lesion grades from samples collected by Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife as part of a voluntary hunter program. Analysis of the relative abundance of bacterial sequences showed that lesions were dominated by members of the bacterial phyla Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Spirochaetes, Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria. In lesion samples, members of the genus Treponema, Porphyromonas, and Mycoplasma increased with lesion severity. Association analysis indicated frequent identification of Treponema with Porphyromonas, Bacteroides and other anaerobic Gram-positive cocci. Conclusions The bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequencing confirmed the presence of Treponema species at all stages of TAHD lesions, treponeme specie-specific PCR and histopathology, indicating that the morphological changes are a continual progression of disease severity with similar bacterial communities. Association and abundance of these other pathogenic genera within lesions may mean synergistic role with Treponema in hoof disease pathogenesis. Characterizing bacteria involved in lesion development, and their persistence during disease progression, provides evidence for science-based management decisions in TAHD infected elk populations.

Pododermatitis, also known as treponeme-associated hoof disease (TAHD), presents a significant challenge to elk (Cervus canadensis) populations in the northwestern USA, with Treponema spp. consistently implicated in the lesion development. However, identifying species-specific Treponema strains from these lesions is hindered by its culture recalcitrance and limited genomic information. This study utilized shotgun sequencing, in silico genome reconstruction, and comparative genomics as a culture-independent approach to identify metagenome-assembled Treponema genomes (MATGs) from skin scraping samples collected from captive elk experimentally challenged with TAHD. The genomic analysis revealed 10 new MATGs, with 6 representing novel genomospecies associated with pododermatitis in elk and 4 corresponding to previously identified species--Treponema pedis and Treponema phagedenis. Importantly, genomic signatures of novel genomospecies identified in this study were consistently detected in biopsy samples of free-ranging elk diagnosed with TAHD, indicating a potential etiologic association. Comparative metabolic profiling of the MATGs against other Treponema genomes showed a distinct metabolic profile, suggesting potential host adaptation or geographic uniqueness of these newly identified genomospecies. The discovery of novel Treponema genomospecies enhances our understanding of the pathogenesis of pododermatitis and lays the foundation for the development of improved molecular surveillance tools to monitor and manage the disease in free-ranging elk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Determining the factors influencing reproductive rates is important for modeling and managing wildlife populations. In ungulates, these vital rates are often related to intrinsic characteristics such as age and body condition. We studied mid-winter pregnancy and early reproductive outcomes (offspring viability) in a reintroduced elk (Cervus canadensis) population in southeastern Kentucky, USA, modeling these rates as a function of age, body condition score, and body mass with generalized linear mixed-effects models (GLMMs) fit within an information-theoretic framework to determine which factors best predicted reproductive potential. Our models for pregnancy status suggested that pregnancy was strongly correlated with body mass and weakly with age and body condition, while models for offspring viability suggested that none of the covariates measured were predictive of parturition and offspring viability. While body mass appeared to be the strongest correlate of reproductive potential in this population, other physiological and nutritional variables likely play a role in pregnancy or fetal survival, and future work should aim to understand how these parameters both influence reproduction and are influenced by habitat management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recreation is known to impact wildlife by displacing and sometimes contributing to the extirpation of sensitive species, underscoring a need for policies that balance wildlife and recreation. This is especially pressing when Indigenous rights necessitate ecological integrity and sustainable populations of wildlife throughout traditional territories. In the Cascade Mountain Range of Washington, USA, Indigenous harvest of elk (Cervus canadensis) is declining, concurrent with increases in recreation. Yet, the nature and magnitude of the effects of recreation on elk are unknown, which prevents land managers from developing informed policies regarding recreation and wildlife management. Here, we use camera traps alongside visitation models that incorporate geolocated social media to quantify the impacts of recreation on elk in western Washington. Random forest models show elk detection rates are relatively constant at low levels of recreation (0–11 people/day), but decrease by over 41% when recreation increases from 12 to 22 people/day. Activity overlap analysis also revealed a shift toward increased evening activity by elk at cameras with higher‐than‐average recreation (∆ = 0.70, 95% CI = 0.61–0.88; χ2 = 7.79, p = 0.02). Generalized additive modeling confirms that elk are more crepuscular or nocturnal at camera locations with more than 10 hiker detections per day. We compare methods for estimating recreation, showing model‐based estimates are more informative than camera‐based estimates. This indicates that recreational intensity along and in the immediate vicinity of trails may be a better predictor of impacts on wildlife than camera‐based estimates that quantify recreational intensity at specific locations along trails. We stress the importance of examining the impacts of recreation on wildlife across multiple spatiotemporal scales and underscore how novel approaches can provide land managers valuable tools to develop management strategies that balance recreation and wildlife. We hope that our work can also serve as a strong example of collaboration between universities, state agencies, and sovereign Indigenous nations toward the broader goal of mitigating the negative impacts of recreation on wildlife. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Brucella abortus is the causative agent of brucellosis in cattle and in humans, resulting in economic losses in the agricultural sector and representing a major threat to public health. Elk populations in the American Northwest are reservoirs for this bacterium and transmit the agent to domestic cattle herds. One potential strategy to mitigate the transmission of brucellosis by elk is vaccination of elk populations against B. abortus; however, elk appear to be immunologically distinct from cattle in their responses to current vaccination strategies. The differences in host response to B. abortus between cattle and elk could be attributed to differences between the cattle and elk innate and adaptive immune responses. Because species-specific interactions between the host microbiome and the immune system are also known to affect immunity, we sought to investigate interactions between the elk microbiome and B. abortus infection and vaccination. Methods: We analyzed the fecal and vaginal microbial communities of B. abortus-vaccinated and unvaccinated elk which were challenged with B. abortus during the periparturient period. Results: We observed that the elk fecal and vaginal microbiota are similar to those of other ruminants, and these microbial communities were affected both by time of sampling and by vaccination status. Notably, we observed that taxa representing ruminant reproductive tract pathogens tended to increase in abundance in the elk vaginal microbiome following parturition. Furthermore, many of these taxa differed significantly in abundance depending on vaccination status, indicating that vaccination against B. abortus affects the elk vaginal microbiota with potential implications for animal reproductive health. Discussion: This study is the first to analyze the vaginal microbiota of any species of the genus Cervus and is also the first to assess the effects of B. abortus vaccination and challenge on the vaginal microbiome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modification of food webs is a frequent cause of shifts in ecosystem states that resist reversal when the food web is restored to its original condition. We used the restoration of the large carnivore guild including gray wolves (Canis lupis), cougars (Felis concolor), and grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis) to the northern range of Yellowstone National Park as a model system to understand how ecosystems might resist reconfiguration after the restoration of apex predators to the food web. The absence of wolves, cougars, and grizzly bears for nearly a century from the northern range was the primary cause of dramatic changes in riparian plant communities. Willows (Salix spp.) were suppressed in height by intense browsing by the dominant herbivore, elk (Cervus canadensis). The loss of activity by beavers (Castor canadensis) coincided with the loss of tall willows. We hypothesized that intense elk browsing interrupted the mutualism between willow and beavers: ecosystem engineering by beavers was a critical component of willow habitat and tall willows were a critical component of habitat for beavers. This interruption made riparian communities resilient to the disturbance caused by the restoration of apex predators. We hypothesized further that reductions in elk browsing attributable to reductions in elk population size were not sufficient to prevent the suppression of willow growth. To test these hypotheses, we conducted a 20‐year, factorial experiment that crossed simulated beaver dams with the exclusion of browsing. We found that willows grew to heights expected for restored communities only in the presence of dams and reduced browsing. Willows experiencing ambient conditions remained well below this expectation. We found no difference in heights or growth rates of willows in experimental controls and willows in 21 randomly chosen sites, confirming that the results of the experiment were representative of range‐wide conditions. A reorganized community of large herbivores was implicated in the suppression of willow growth. We conclude that the restoration of large carnivores to the food web failed to restore riparian plant communities on Yellowstone's northern range, supporting the hypothesis that this ecosystem is in an alternative stable state caused primarily by the extirpation of apex predators during the early 20th century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predator non‐consumptive effects (NCE) can alter prey foraging time and habitat use, potentially reducing fitness. Prey can mitigate NCEs by increasing vigilance, chewing‐vigilance synchronization, and spatiotemporal avoidance of predators. We quantified the relationship between Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) predation risk and elk (Cervus canadensis) behavior. We conducted behavioral observations on adult female elk and developed predation risk indices using GPS collar data from Mexican wolves, locations of elk killed by wolves, and landscape covariates. We compared a priori models to determine the best predictors of adult female behavior and multitasking. Metrics that quantified both spatial and temporal predation risk were the most predictive. Vigilance was positively associated with increased predation risk. The effect of predation risk on foraging and resting differed across diurnal periods. During midday when wolf activity was lower, the probability of foraging increased while resting decreased in high‐risk areas. During crepuscular periods when elk and wolves were most active, increased predation risk was associated with increased vigilance and slight decreases in foraging. Our results suggest elk are temporally avoiding predation risk from Mexican wolves by trading resting for foraging, a trade‐off often not evaluated in behavioral studies. Probability of multitasking depended on canopy openness and an interaction between maternal period and predation risk; multitasking decreased prior to parturition and increased post parturition in high‐risk areas. Openness was inversely related to multitasking. These results suggest adult female elk are altering the type of vigilance used depending on resource availability/quality, current energetic needs, and predation risk. Our results highlight potentially important, but often‐excluded behaviors and trade‐offs prey species may use to reduce the indirect effects of predation and contribute additional context to our understanding of predator–prey dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Migration provides an adaptive strategy to improve fitness by allowing individuals to exploit gradients of resources and changes in predation risk. In recent decades, the extent and prevalence of migration has declined in numerous ungulate species including many populations of elk (Cervus canadensis). Resident elk are often more closely associated with human activity, are more readily involved in agricultural conflicts and may contribute to overgrazing on some ranges. We evaluated migratory trends, survival rates, and causes of mortality in a partially migratory elk population in southeastern British Columbia, Canada, and compared these parameters with data from a 1982–1996 study from the same area. Analysis of 201 animal‐years (n = 78 collared cow elk) between 2016 and 2022 showed a ratio of 52% migratory to 48% resident elk, similar to what was found during the 1982–1996 study (55% migratory to 45% resident; n = 40 cows). Among the migrants, 55% were standard migrants (traveling moderate to longer distances and changing little in elevation), 35% elevational, and 10% mixed/atypical. We detected a 14% yearly switching rate between migratory and resident strategies. We recorded 30 mortalities: 47% from human causes, predominantly elk‐vehicle/train collisions (33% of mortalities), apparent starvation/old age (17%), and predation (17%). Notably, while mortality from natural causes was similar between strategies, human‐caused mortality was nearly twice as high in resident elk. Signs of nutritional stress and lower pregnancy rates indicated potential forage limitations. Migrants had higher average survival rates (0.90) compared to residents (0.83), a shift from the 1982–1996 study that recorded higher resident survival rates (0.98), the same migrant survival rate (0.90), and fewer elk‐vehicle/train collisions. Cow elk in our study made fewer and shorter movements into upper mountain tributaries and greater use of mine properties than observed during the 1982–1996 study. Wildlife managers should consider opportunities to enhance elk forage within traditional high‐elevation summer ranges and mitigations to reduce elk‐vehicle/train collisions. Further research is needed to quantify reproductive success, monitor calf survival, and determine relative forage quality among summering areas between migratory strategies, and determine winter ranges of long‐distant migrants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

White Crappie (Pomoxis annularis) and Black Crappie (P. nigromaculatus) were studied in three southeast Kansas reservoirs to assess exploitation and determine if current regulations were conducive for sustainable populations. Trap nets were used to sample crappie in Elk City Reservoir, Big Hill Reservoir, and Parsons City Lake. Crappie measuring 210 mm and greater received Floy FD-94 tags that served as entries for rewards to encourage tag reporting. Harvest and angler demographic information were collected when tags were reported. Postcard surveys and motion-sensed cameras were used in conjunction to estimate angler effort and reporting rate on Parsons City Lake. Annual exploitation rates (i.e., percent of fish harvested) determined by tag returns and corrected for nonreporting and tag loss were 28.3%, 21.8%, and 3.9% on Elk City Reservoir, Big Hill Reservoir, and Parsons City Lake, respectively. Overfishing was not occurring, so current statewide regulations were likely appropriate, and no changes may be necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Treponeme-Associated Hoof Disease (TAHD) is a polybacterial, multifactorial disease affecting free-ranging wild elk (Cervus canadensis) in the Pacific Northwest. Previous studies have indicated a bacterial etiology similar to digital dermatitis in livestock, including isolation of Treponema species from lesions. The lesions appear to progress rapidly from ulcerative areas in the interdigital space or along the coronary band to severe, ulcerative, necrotic, proliferative lesions under-running the hoof wall, perforating the sole, and contributing to hoof elongation, deformity, and overgrowth. Eventually the lesions undermine the laminal structure leading to sloughing of the hoof horn capsule. The objective of this study was to characterize the bacterial communities associated with hoof lesions, which were categorized into 5 stages or disease grade severities, with 0 being unaffected tissue and 4 being sloughed hoof capsule. We also wanted to determine if the etiology of TAHD through morphological changes was dominated by Treponema, as observed in hoof diseases in livestock. Results: The bacterial 16S rRNA gene was sequenced from 66 hoof skin biopsy samples representing 5 lesion grades from samples collected by Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife as part of a voluntary hunter program. Analysis of the relative abundance of bacterial sequences showed that lesions were dominated by members of the bacterial phyla Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Spirochaetes, Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria. In lesion samples, members of the genus Treponema, Porphyromonas, and Mycoplasma increased with lesion severity. Association analysis indicated frequent identification of Treponema with Porphyromonas, Bacteroides and other anaerobic Gram-positive cocci. Conclusions: The bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequencing confirmed the presence of Treponema species at all stages of TAHD lesions, treponeme specie-specific PCR and histopathology, indicating that the morphological changes are a continual progression of disease severity with similar bacterial communities. Association and abundance of these other pathogenic genera within lesions may mean synergistic role with Treponema in hoof disease pathogenesis. Characterizing bacteria involved in lesion development, and their persistence during disease progression, provides evidence for science-based management decisions in TAHD infected elk populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Glucocorticoids are often associated with stressful environments, but they are also thought to drive the best strategies to improve fitness in stressful environments. Glucocorticoids improve fitness in part by regulating foraging behaviours in response to daily and seasonal energy requirements. However, many studies demonstrating relationships between foraging behaviour and glucocorticoids are experimental, and few observational studies conducted under natural conditions have tested whether changing glucocorticoid levels are related to daily and seasonal changes in energy requirements. Methods: We integrated glucocorticoids into habitat selection models to test for relationships between foraging behaviour and glucocorticoid levels in elk (Cervus canadensis) as their daily and seasonal energy requirements changed. Using integrated step selection analysis, we tested whether elevated glucocorticoid levels were related to foraging habitat selection on a daily scale and whether that relationship became stronger during lactation, one of the greatest seasonal periods of energy requirement for female mammals. Results: We found stronger selection of foraging habitat by female elk with elevated glucocorticoids (eß = 1.44 95% CI 1.01, 2.04). We found no difference in overall glucocorticoid levels after calving, nor a significant change in the relationship between glucocorticoids and foraging habitat selection at the time of calving. However, we found a gradual increase in the relationship between glucocorticoids and habitat selection by female elk as their calves grew over the next few months (eß = 1.01, 95% CI 1.00, 1.02), suggesting a potentially stronger physiological effect of glucocorticoids for elk with increasing energy requirements. Conclusions: We suggest glucocorticoid-integrated habitat selection models demonstrate the role of glucocorticoids in regulating foraging responses to daily and seasonal energy requirements. Ultimately, this integration will help elucidate the implications of elevated glucocorticoids under natural conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

California, USA, is home to 3 subspecies of North American elk (Cervus canadensis): Roosevelt (C. c. roosevelti), Rocky Mountain (C. c. nelsoni), and tule (C. c. nannodes). Effective management requires a baseline understanding of each subspecies' range, admixture zones, and geographic patterns of genetic diversity. To address these questions, we genotyped 1,271 individual elk from California (n = 1,204) and reference populations of Rocky Mountain and Roosevelt elk from Nevada (n = 32) and Oregon (n = 35), USA. Using 19 polymorphic microsatellite loci, we detected admixture between Roosevelt and Rocky Mountain elk at a contact zone in northern California, and between Roosevelt and tule elk in north-coastal California and centralcoastal California. We identified a genetically distinct population of Roosevelt elk in northwestern California, likely reflecting the remnant population that survived a large demographic decline from overhunting during the 1800s. Tule elk exhibited lower levels of heterozygosity (0.44 ± 0.03 [SD]) and allelic richness (2.9±0.2) than Rocky Mountain (0.58±0.05, 4.9±0.4, respectively) and Roosevelt (0.50 ± 0.06, 4.4 ± 0.6, respectively) elk. Among tule elk populations, heterozygosity varied, with the lowest heterozygosity (0.23 ± 0.05) corresponding to the oldest enclosed herd used over the past century as a source of translocations. Among tule elk populations, genetic structure revealed several cases of successful and unsuccessful reintroduction or augmentation attempts. Results provide an essential baseline for future monitoring and decisions about harvest management, translocations to preserve genetic diversity, and landscape-level conservation planning to maintain, enhance, or obstruct connectivity of elk populations. Genome-wide sequencing and analyses are needed to quantify inbreeding absolutely and assess genetic load and the age of admixture where subspecies currently exchange genes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To manage predation risk, prey navigate a dynamic landscape of fear, or spatiotemporal variation in risk perception, reflecting predator distributions, traits, and activity cycles. Prey may seek to reduce risk across this landscape using habitat at times and in places when predators are less active. In multipredator landscapes, avoiding one predator could increase vulnerability to another, making the landscape of fear difficult to predict and navigate. Additionally, humans may shape interactions between predators and prey, and induce new sources of risk. Humans can function as a shield, providing a refuge for prey from human‐averse carnivores, and as a predator, causing mortality through hunting and vehicle collisions and eliciting a fear response that can exceed that of carnivores. We used telemetry data collected between 2017 and 2021 from 63 Global Positioning System‐collared elk (Cervus canadensis), 42 cougars (Puma concolor), and 16 wolves (Canis lupus) to examine how elk habitat selection changed in relation to carnivores and humans in northeastern Washington, USA. Using step selection functions, we evaluated elk habitat use in relation to cougars, wolves, and humans, diel period (daytime vs. nighttime), season (summer calving season vs. fall hunting season), and habitat structure (open vs. closed habitat). The diel cycle was critical to understanding elk movement, allowing elk to reduce encounters with predators where and when they would be the largest threat. Elk strongly avoided cougars at night but had a near‐neutral response to cougars during the day, whereas elk avoided wolves at all times of day. Elk generally used more open habitats where cougars and wolves were most active, rather than altering the use of habitat structure depending on the predator species. Elk avoided humans during the day and ~80% of adult female mortality was human caused, suggesting that humans functioned as a "super predator" in this system. Simultaneously, elk leveraged the human shield against wolves but not cougars at night, and no elk were confirmed to have been killed by wolves. Our results add to the mounting evidence that humans profoundly affect predator–prey interactions, highlighting the importance of studying these dynamics in anthropogenic areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Climate is an important driver of ungulate life-histories, population dynamics, and migratory behaviors. Climate conditions can directly impact ungulates via changes in the costs of thermoregulation and locomotion, or indirectly, via changes in habitat and forage availability, predation, and species interactions. Many studies have documented the effects of climate variability and climate change on North America's ungulates, recording impacts to population demographics, physiology, foraging behavior, migratory patterns, and more. However, ungulate responses are not uniform and vary by species and geography. Here, we present a systematic map describing the abundance and distribution of evidence on the effects of climate variability and climate change on native ungulates in North America. Methods: We searched for all evidence documenting or projecting how climate variability and climate change affect the 15 ungulate species native to the U.S., Canada, Mexico, and Greenland. We searched Web of Science, Scopus, and the websites of 62 wildlife management agencies to identify relevant academic and grey literature. We screened English-language documents for inclusion at both the title and abstract and full-text levels. Data from all articles that passed full-text review were extracted and coded in a database. We identified knowledge clusters and gaps related to the species, locations, climate variables, and outcome variables measured in the literature. Review findings: We identified a total of 674 relevant articles published from 1947 until September 2020. Caribou (Rangifer tarandus), elk (Cervus canadensis), and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were the most frequently studied species. Geographically, more research has been conducted in the western U.S. and western Canada, though a notable concentration of research is also located in the Great Lakes region. Nearly 75% more articles examined the effects of precipitation on ungulates compared to temperature, with variables related to snow being the most commonly measured climate variables. Most studies examined the effects of climate on ungulate population demographics, habitat and forage, and physiology and condition, with far fewer examining the effects on disturbances, migratory behavior, and seasonal range and corridor habitat. Conclusions: The effects of climate change, and its interactions with stressors such as land-use change, predation, and disease, is of increasing concern to wildlife managers. With its broad scope, this systematic map can help ungulate managers identify relevant climate impacts and prepare for future changes to the populations they manage. Decisions regarding population control measures, supplemental feeding, translocation, and the application of habitat treatments are just some of the management decisions that can be informed by an improved understanding of climate impacts. This systematic map also identified several gaps in the literature that would benefit from additional research, including climate effects on ungulate migratory patterns, on species that are relatively understudied yet known to be sensitive to changes in climate, such as pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) and mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus), and on ungulates in the eastern U.S. and Mexico. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses a study conducted in northeastern Washington, USA, which examined the survival and movement of elk, cougars, and wolves. The study found that during the day, elk avoided humans, who were responsible for 80% of adult female elk mortality. At night, elk used areas near humans, reducing their proximity to wolves but not cougars. The research highlights the impact of humans on predator-prey interactions in managed landscapes. [Extracted from the article]

Behavior is an important component of animal life. Two forms of behavior are considered in the article: cognitive (genetically fixed) and intellectual (acquired as an adaptation to the environment). A scientific novelty of the study consists in the interpretation of these forms using the example of nest-building, territorial, and foraging behavior of the families in the wolf population group. A conservatism of the cognitive behavior and plasticity of the intellectual behavior (which together provide a high vitality and stability of wolf populations in the biogeocenosis) were demonstrated. As a result of comparative analysis, it was established that, with an increase in the contacts between wolf and elk (Central Forest Biosphere Reserve) and wolf and deer (Yellowstone National Park and southwestern Montana), changes in behavior occurred in the prey. In elks, this was manifested in increased alertness, which made it difficult for the wolf to approach the prey at a distance for a successful attack, and the deer left feeding places and preferred safer habitats with better visibility for wolf detection; these are the consequences of the activation of a natural caution reflex. An increased alertness or vigilance was a barrier against the consumption of prey by a predator. But the wolf also cannot change the genetically fixed process of killing the prey by changing the hunting strategy: moving from a short-term pursuit in the case of an unsuccessful attack to a long one. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Parturition timing has long been a topic of interest in ungulate research. However, few studies have examined parturition timing at fine scale (e.g.,

Invasive smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) has been expanding rapidly through the coastal wetlands of eastern China and these changes negatively affect local birds. In the Dafeng Milu National Nature Reserve (henceforth referred to as DMNNR), rapid degradation of spartina occurs after an increase in milu (Elaphures davidianus; hereafter elk) numbers and ecological hydrological engineering. We evaluated the impact of such degradation on the abundance and species diversity of birds in the DMNNR during 2017–2021. We found that the area covered by S. alterniflora decreased significantly in the study area at a rate of 310 ha per year and by 62% during 2017–2021 (p < 0.01). With this decrease in the S. alterniflora area, the species richness and abundance of birds first increased and then decreased. Songbird density clearly decreased but species richness did not significantly do so. This research demonstrated that during the initial stages of vegetation degradation, there was a positive effect on bird diversity. With the increasing vegetation degradation increases, both songbirds and waterbirds experience negative impacts. The DMNNR is an important stopover site for waterbirds in the East Asian–Australasian Flyway, and additional measures are needed to control vegetation degradation and to restore the native habitats for birds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a novel nature-inspired swarm-based optimization algorithm called elk herd optimizer (EHO). It is inspired by the breeding process of the elk herd. Elks have two main breeding seasons: rutting and calving. In the rutting season, the elk herd splits into different families of various sizes. This division is based on fighting for dominance between bulls, where the stronger bull can form a family with large numbers of harems. In the calving season, each family breeds new calves from its bull and harems. This inspiration is set in an optimization context where the optimization loop consists of three operators: rutting season, calving season, and selection season. During the selection season, all families are merged, including bulls, harems, and calves. The fittest elk herd will be selected for use in the upcoming rutting and calving seasons. In simple words, EHO divides the population into a set of groups, each with one leader and several followers in the rutting season. The number of followers is determined based on the fitness value of its leader group. Each group will generate new solutions based on its leader and followers in the calving season. The members of all groups including leaders, followers, and new solutions are combined and the fittest population is selected in the selection season. The performance of EHO is assessed using 29 benchmark optimization problems utilized in the CEC-2017 special sessions on real-parameter optimization and four traditional real-world engineering design problems. The comparative results were conducted against ten well-established metaheuristic algorithms and showed that the proposed EHO yielded the best results for almost all the benchmark functions used. Statistical testing using Friedman's test post-hocked by Holm's test function confirms the superiority of the proposed EHO when compared to other methods. In a nutshell, EHO is an efficient nature-inspired swarm-based optimization algorithm that can be used to tackle several optimization problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife microbiome studies arebeing used to assess microbial links with animal health and habitat. The gold standard of sampling microbiomes directly from captured animals is ideal for limiting potential abiotic influences on microbiome composition, yet fails to leverage the many benefits of non-invasive sampling. Application of microbiome-based monitoring for rare, endangered, or elusive species creates a need to non-invasively collect scat samples shed into the environment. Since controlling sample age is not always possible, the potential influence of timeassociated abiotic factors was assessed. To accomplish this, we analyzed partial 16S rRNAgenesoffecalmetagenomicDNAsamplednon-invasively fromRockyMountain elk (Cervus canadensis) near Yellowstone National Park. We sampled pellet piles from four different elk, then aged them in a natural forest plot for 1, 3, 7, and 14 days, with triplicate samples at each time point (i.e., a blocked, repeat measures (longitudinal) study design). We compared fecal microbiota of each elk through time with point estimateso f diversity, boot strapped hier archical clustering of samples, anda version of ANOVA-simultaneous components analysis (ASCA) with PCA (LiMM-PCA) to assess the variance contributions of time, individual and sample replication. Our results showed community stability through days 0, 1, 3 and 7, with amodest but detectable change in abundance in only 2 genera (Bacteroides and Sporobacter) at day 14. The total variance explained by time in our LiMM-PCA model across the entire 2-week period was not statistically significant (p>0.195) and the overall effect size was small (<10% variance) compared to the variance explained by the individual animal (p<0.0005; 21% var.). We conclude that non-invasive sampling of elk scat collected within one week during winter/early spring provides a reliable approach to characterize fecal microbiota composition in a 16S rDNA survey and that sampled individuals can be directly compared across unknown time points with minimal bias. Further, point estimates of microbiota diversity were notmechanistically affected by sample age. Our assessment of samples using bootstrap hierarchical clustering produced clustering by animal (branches) but not by sample age (nodes). These results support greater useof non-invasivemicrobiome sampling to assess ecological patterns in animal systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: This paper looks at past relationships between humans and certain wild animal species, that is, raptors, bears, beavers, and elks. As we have observed, it was the behaviour of animals that caught the attention of humans, such as spectacular flights and hunting by raptors, the similarities in bear and human behaviour, the fascinating impressiveness and charisma of elks, and the landscape-shaping by enigmatic beavers. All these animals have special meanings to humans far beyond their economic significance. Wild goshawks, falcons, and other raptor species have acted as trained hunting companions, but they were never domesticated and had to be treated with care. As for bear, beaver, and elk, there were often complex rituals before, during, and after the killing, because there was no clear separation between humans and animals. The animals were not just prey but equal beings and other-than-human persons. However, there were also changes over time in the human–animal relationship, such as the advent of the farming way of life with a preference for domesticated animals, as well as the arrival of Christianity, by which animals became second to human. Humans have developed a special relationship with some animal species throughout history, even though these animals were never domesticated. Based on raptors, bears, beavers, and elks, the question of whether there are similarities between the perception of these animals that triggered a special kind of fascination in humans and how the relationship between humans and these animals changed between Mesolithic age and medieval times is addressed. As we demonstrate, the categorical antagonism between 'animal' and 'human' is a concept that saw different kinds of influence, from the advent of sedentarism and husbandry to Christianity and from philosophical thinking in Classical Antiquity and the Period of Enlightenment. In prehistory and early history, we find different, opposing world views across time, cultures, and periods. Differences between animals and humans have been considered as fluid, and humans have had to engage with animals and their needs. The well-known and famous 'bear ceremonies' attested to different peoples and times were not unique, but were a part of belief systems that also included other animal species. Among the considered animals, certain raptor species attracted the attention of humans who tried to establish contact with them, as companions, whereas bears were almost 'disguised humans' due to all their similarities with humans, but they were also tabooed beings whose real names had to be avoided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2001 and 2002, 52 elk (Cervus canadensis; 21 males, 31 females), originally obtained from Elk Island National Park, Alberta, Canada, were transported and released into Cataloochee Valley in the northeastern portion of Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GRSM, Park), North Carolina, USA. The annual population growth rate (λ) was negative (0.996, 95% CI = 0.945–1.047) and predation by black bears (Ursus americanus) on elk calves was identified as an important determinant of population growth. From 2006 to 2008, 49 bears from the primary elk calving area (i.e., Cataloochee Valley) were trapped and translocated about 70 km to the southwestern portion of the Park just prior to elk calving. Per capita recruitment (i.e., the number of calves produced per adult female that survive to 1 year of age) increased from 0.306 prior to bear translocation (2001–2005) to 0.544 during years when bears were translocated (2006–2008) and λ increased to 1.118 (95% CI = 1.096–1.140). Our objective was to determine whether per capita calf recruitment rates after bear removal (2009–2019) at Cataloochee were similar to the higher rates estimated during bear removal (i.e., long‐term response) or if they returned to rates before bear removal (i.e., short‐term response), and how those rates compared with recruitment from portions of our study area where bears were not relocated. We documented 419 potential elk calving events and monitored 129 yearling and adult elk from 2001 to 2019. Known‐fate models based on radio‐telemetry and observational data supported calf recruitment returning to pre‐2006 levels at Cataloochee (short‐term response); recruitment of Cataloochee elk before and after bear relocation was lower (0.184) than during bear relocation (0.492). Recruitment rates of elk outside the removal area during the bear relocation period (0.478) were similar to before and after rates (0.420). In the Cataloochee Valley, cause‐specific annual calf mortality rates due to predation by bears were 0.319 before, 0.120 during, and 0.306 after bear relocation. In contrast, the cause‐specific annual mortality rate of calves in areas where bears were not relocated was 0.033 after the bear relocation period, with no bear predation on calves before or during bear relocation. The mean annual population growth rate for all monitored elk was 1.062 (95% CI = 0.979–1.140) after bear relocation based on the recruitment and survival data. Even though the effects of bear removal were temporary, the relocations were effective in achieving a short‐term increase in elk recruitment, which was important for the reintroduction program given that the elk population was small and vulnerable to extirpation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To assess the susceptibility of elk (Cervus canadensis) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) to SARS-CoV-2, we performed experimental infections in both species. Elk did not shed infectious virus but mounted low-level serologic responses. Mule deer shed and transmitted virus and mounted pronounced serologic responses and thus could play a role in SARS-CoV-2 epidemiology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Preparation of bones for radiocarbon (14C) dating is still quite a challenge for researchers. The methods are being tested and improved, to increase reliability of dating results and to verify the previous ones. In this work, a set of gelatine samples, extracted from Cervus elaphus and Cervus canadensis bones from various sites in Europe and a set of human bones from archaeological sites in Poland were subjected to retreatment using ultrafiltration in Gliwice Radiocarbon Laboratory. The tested samples represent a wide range of ages, from older than 40,000 14C years BP to modern. The prepared material was subjected to the measurement of C/N atomic ratios and 14C dating using the accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) technique. Also, the stable isotopes (δ13C and δ15N) values were determined. In a few cases ultrafiltration allows to improve gelatine quality for long-stored samples, by increasing the %C and %N as well as decreasing C/Nat ratios. Nevertheless, this effect was not observed for majority of the samples. Remeasurements of long-term stored samples give mostly the same 14C ages for ultrafiltered ones and for those without ultrafiltration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Migration is an adaptive life‐history strategy across taxa that helps individuals maximise fitness by obtaining forage and avoiding predation risk. The mechanisms driving migratory changes are poorly understood, and links between migratory behaviour, space use, and demographic consequences are rare.Here, we use a nearly 20‐year record of individual‐based monitoring of a large herbivore, elk (Cervus canadensis) to test hypotheses for changing patterns of migration in and adjacent to a large protected area in Banff National Park (BNP), Canada.We test whether bottom‐up (forage quality) or top‐down (predation risk) factors explained trends in (i) the proportion of individuals using 5 different migratory tactics, (ii) differences in survival rates of migratory tactics during migration and whilst on summer ranges, (iii) cause‐specific mortality by wolves and grizzly bears, and (iv) population abundance.We found dramatic shifts in migration consistent with behavioural plasticity in individual choice of annual migratory routes. Shifts were inconsistent with exposure to the bottom‐up benefits of migration. Instead, exposure to landscape gradients in predation risk caused by exploitation outside the protected area drove migratory shifts. Carnivore exploitation outside the protected area led to higher survival rates for female elk remaining resident or migrating outside the protected area.Cause‐specific mortality aligned with exposure to predation risk along migratory routes and summer ranges. Wolf predation risk was higher on migratory routes than summer ranges of montane‐migrant tactics, but wolf predation risk traded‐off with heightened risk from grizzly bears on summer ranges. A novel eastern migrant tactic emerged following a large forest fire that enhanced forage in an area with lower predation risk outside of the protected area.The changes in migratory behaviour translated to population abundance, where abundance of the montane‐migratory tactics declined over time. The presence of diverse migratory life histories maintained a higher total population abundance than would have been the case with only one migratory tactic in the population.Our study demonstrates the complex ways in which migratory populations change over time through behavioural plasticity and associated demographic consequences because of individuals balancing predation risk and forage trade‐offs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildfire activity across the western United States has increased in recent decades, with wildfires burning at a higher severity and larger scale. The effect of wildfires on forest structure and wildlife habitat is largely influenced by wildfire severity; however, few studies have evaluated the effects of wildfire severity on resource selection of ungulates, particularly during hunting seasons, when knowledge of resource selection is essential for making informed management decisions. To fill this knowledge gap, we fit resource selection probability functions for female elk (Cervus canadensis) in years 2 and 3 post‐wildfire to evaluate the effects of wildfire severity and other environmental and anthropogenic factors on elk resource selection during 4 autumn periods with varying levels of hunter pressure (prehunt, archery‐only, backcountry rifle, and rifle). The probability of female elk selecting low‐severity burned forests during the prehunt, archery‐only, backcountry rifle, and rifle periods was 0.99 (95% credible interval [CrI] = 0.98–1.00), 0.99 (CrI = 0.97–1.00), 0.99 (CrI = 0.99–1.00), and 0.0010 (CrI = 0.00067–0.0015]), respectively, and did not strongly differ from the probability of selecting high‐severity burned forests. During the prehunt period, elk also selected areas with greater forage quality and areas farther from open roads. Elk selected similar resources during the archery period, and selected areas with higher hunter pressure. Elk started leaving hunting districts that had higher snowpack (i.e., snow water equivalent; β = −0.84, CrI = −0.96–−0.72) and allowed rifle hunting (β = −5.39, CrI = −5.80–−4.97) but still selected areas with higher hunter pressure (β = 0.92, CrI = 0.78–1.07) during the backcountry rifle period. During the rifle period, elk continued avoiding areas with high snowpack (β = −3.96, CrI = −4.22–−3.71) and started selecting areas with lower hunter pressure (β = −1.71, CrI = −1.79–−1.64) and lower canopy cover. Overall, wildfire affected elk distributions in early autumn 2 and 3 years after fire in our study area, with limited differences in resource selection between wildfire severity categories. By late autumn, hunter pressure and snowpack were the primary factors influencing elk distribution, and wildfire had little influence on selection. When estimating wildfire effects on elk movements during autumn and establishing appropriate hunting regulations, managers should consider the hunting season, hunter pressure, timing and amount of snowpack, location of traditional winter range, and the seasonal elk range burned, as all these factors may contribute to how elk use the landscape in autumn. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resource selection and space use are important aspects of an animal's ecology and understanding these behaviors is necessary for proper wildlife management. We used mixed‐effect integrated step‐selection models to evaluate seasonal variation in resource selection between male and female elk (Cervus canadensis) and diel periods in central Pennsylvania, USA. Resource selection varied seasonally, between sexes, and across diel periods. These results demonstrate strong seasonal sexual segregation in resource use, and movements between habitats throughout the day, highlighting the dynamic nature of resource selection by elk and underscoring the importance of considering sexual variation at multiple temporal scales when designing ungulate management strategies. Finally, we developed habitat suitability maps for male and female elk in the Pennsylvania Elk Management Area. Wildlife ecologists and managers must consider multiple sources of variation in habitat use and resource selection, particularly for large mobile species such as elk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A central debate in ecology has been the long‐running discussion on the role of apex predators in affecting the abundance and dynamics of their prey. In terrestrial systems, research has primarily relied on correlational approaches, due to the challenge of implementing robust experiments with replication and appropriate controls. A consequence of this is that we largely suffer from a lack of mechanistic understanding of the population dynamics of interacting species, which can be surprisingly complex. Mechanistic models offer an opportunity to examine the causes and consequences of some of this complexity. We present a bioenergetic mechanistic model of a tritrophic system where the primary vegetation resource follows a seasonal growth function, and the herbivore and carnivore species are modeled using two integral projection models (IPMs) with body mass as the phenotypic trait. Within each IPM, the demographic functions are structured according to bioenergetic principles, describing how animals acquire and transform resources into body mass, energy reserves, and breeding potential. We parameterize this model to reproduce the population dynamics of grass, elk, and wolves in northern Yellowstone National Park (USA) and investigate the impact of wolf reintroduction on the system. Our model generated predictions that closely matched the observed population sizes of elk and wolf in Yellowstone prior to and following wolf reintroduction. The introduction of wolves into our basal grass–elk bioenergetic model resulted in a population of 99 wolves and a reduction in elk numbers by 61% (from 14,948 to 5823) at equilibrium. In turn, vegetation biomass increased by approximately 25% in the growing season and more than threefold in the nongrowing season. The addition of wolves to the model caused the elk population to switch from being food‐limited to being predator‐limited and had a stabilizing effect on elk numbers across different years. Wolf predation also led to a shift in the phenotypic composition of the elk population via a small increase in elk average body mass. Our model represents a novel approach to the study of predator–prey interactions, and demonstrates that explicitly considering and linking bioenergetics, population demography and body mass phenotypes can provide novel insights into the mechanisms behind complex ecosystem processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atlantoaxial abnormalities are rarely documented among wild animals. Many defects of segmentation in the spine are hereditary in domestic species and humans. Here, we present a block vertebra in an eastern wapiti (Cervus canadensis canadensis) from the Angel Site (12Vg1) in southern Indiana (USA) dating to 1000–1400 CE. Diagnosis used macroscopic and radiographic examination. Evidence of inflammatory response and eburnation point to functional compromise. Recorded pathologies of this nature are underrepresented in the past and present. We suggest this specimen from an adult wapiti species represents a female as this condition would have been more debilitating in an antlered stag limiting the possibility of living well into adulthood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rumen is divided into multiple rumen sacs based on anatomical structure, and each has its unique physiological environment. Tarim wapiti preserved roughage tolerance after domestication, and adaptation to the desertified environment led to the development of a unique rumen shape and intraruminal environment. In this work, six Tarim wapiti were chosen and tested for fermentation parameters, microbes, and histomorphology in four rumen areas (Dorsal sac, DS; Ventral sac, VS; Caudodorsal blind sac, CDBS; Caudoventral blind sac, CVBS). Tarim wapiti's rumen blind sac had better developed rumen histomorphology, the ventral sac was richer in VFAs, and the dominant bacteria varied most notably in the phylum Firmicutes, which was enriched in the caudoventral blind sac. The ventral sac biomarkers focused on carbohydrate fermentation-associated bacteria, the dorsal sac focused on N recycling, and the caudoventral blind sac identified the only phylum-level bacterium, Firmicutes; we were surprised to find a probiotic bacterium, Bacillus clausii, identified as a biomarker in the ventral sac. This research provides a better understanding of rumen fermentation parameters, microorganisms, and histomorphology in the Tarim wapiti rumen within a unique ecological habitat, laying the groundwork for future regulation targeting the rumen microbiota and subsequent animal production improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Recreation is known to impact wildlife by displacing and sometimes contributing to the extirpation of sensitive species, underscoring a need for policies that balance wildlife and recreation. This is especially pressing when Indigenous rights necessitate ecological integrity and sustainable populations of wildlife throughout traditional territories. In the Cascade Mountain Range of Washington, USA, Indigenous harvest of elk (Cervus canadensis) is declining, concurrent with increases in recreation. Yet, the nature and magnitude of the effects of recreation on elk are unknown, which prevents land managers from developing informed policies regarding recreation and wildlife management. Here, we use camera traps alongside visitation models that incorporate geolocated social media to quantify the impacts of recreation on elk in western Washington. Random forest models show elk detection rates are relatively constant at low levels of recreation (0–11 people/day), but decrease by over 41% when recreation increases from 12 to 22 people/day. Activity overlap analysis also revealed a shift toward increased evening activity by elk at cameras with higher‐than‐average recreation (∆ = 0.70, 95% CI = 0.61–0.88; χ2 = 7.79, p = 0.02). Generalized additive modeling confirms that elk are more crepuscular or nocturnal at camera locations with more than 10 hiker detections per day. We compare methods for estimating recreation, showing model‐based estimates are more informative than camera‐based estimates. This indicates that recreational intensity along and in the immediate vicinity of trails may be a better predictor of impacts on wildlife than camera‐based estimates that quantify recreational intensity at specific locations along trails. We stress the importance of examining the impacts of recreation on wildlife across multiple spatiotemporal scales and underscore how novel approaches can provide land managers valuable tools to develop management strategies that balance recreation and wildlife. We hope that our work can also serve as a strong example of collaboration between universities, state agencies, and sovereign Indigenous nations toward the broader goal of mitigating the negative impacts of recreation on wildlife.

Abstract Migration provides an adaptive strategy to improve fitness by allowing individuals to exploit gradients of resources and changes in predation risk. In recent decades, the extent and prevalence of migration has declined in numerous ungulate species including many populations of elk (Cervus canadensis). Resident elk are often more closely associated with human activity, are more readily involved in agricultural conflicts and may contribute to overgrazing on some ranges. We evaluated migratory trends, survival rates, and causes of mortality in a partially migratory elk population in southeastern British Columbia, Canada, and compared these parameters with data from a 1982–1996 study from the same area. Analysis of 201 animal‐years (n = 78 collared cow elk) between 2016 and 2022 showed a ratio of 52% migratory to 48% resident elk, similar to what was found during the 1982–1996 study (55% migratory to 45% resident; n = 40 cows). Among the migrants, 55% were standard migrants (traveling moderate to longer distances and changing little in elevation), 35% elevational, and 10% mixed/atypical. We detected a 14% yearly switching rate between migratory and resident strategies. We recorded 30 mortalities: 47% from human causes, predominantly elk‐vehicle/train collisions (33% of mortalities), apparent starvation/old age (17%), and predation (17%). Notably, while mortality from natural causes was similar between strategies, human‐caused mortality was nearly twice as high in resident elk. Signs of nutritional stress and lower pregnancy rates indicated potential forage limitations. Migrants had higher average survival rates (0.90) compared to residents (0.83), a shift from the 1982–1996 study that recorded higher resident survival rates (0.98), the same migrant survival rate (0.90), and fewer elk‐vehicle/train collisions. Cow elk in our study made fewer and shorter movements into upper mountain tributaries and greater use of mine properties than observed during the 1982–1996 study. Wildlife managers should consider opportunities to enhance elk forage within traditional high‐elevation summer ranges and mitigations to reduce elk‐vehicle/train collisions. Further research is needed to quantify reproductive success, monitor calf survival, and determine relative forage quality among summering areas between migratory strategies, and determine winter ranges of long‐distant migrants.

Listeria monocytogenes is a bacterium that can cause disease in many species, including humans, livestock, and wildlife. Increased interactions via shared habitats may promote pathogen transmission among these groups. Our objectives were to evaluate the Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study diagnostic data to characterize and compare L. monocytogenes-induced lesions and comorbidities in gray foxes and wild turkeys, and to describe cases of listeriosis in 2 cervids. From 1991-2020, 8 gray foxes, 8 wild turkeys, a neonatal elk, and a white-tailed deer fawn from several eastern states in the United States were diagnosed with listeriosis. All 8 foxes had hepatitis and/or hepatic necrosis with intralesional gram-positive bacilli, and concurrent canine distemper virus (CDV) infection; 2 of the foxes had been vaccinated recently for CDV. L. monocytogenes was cultured from the liver (6 of 8) or lung (2 of 8) of foxes. Lesions in wild turkeys included hepatocellular necrosis (3 of 8), heterophilic hepatitis (1 of 8), heterophilic granulomas (1 of 8), intrasinusoidal gram-positive bacilli without hepatic lesions (1 of 8), granulomatous dermatitis (1 of 8), and/or granulomatous myocarditis (2 of 8). Lymphoproliferative disease viral DNA was detected in 5 of 6 turkeys tested; reticuloendotheliosis viral DNA was detected in 2 of 3 turkeys tested. Both cervids had systemic listeriosis, with L. monocytogenes isolated from liver. Immunohistochemistry for Listeria spp. on select cases revealed immunolabeling in affected organs. Listeriosis was thus established as a cause of morbidity and mortality in 3 wildlife species, which often suffered from concurrent infections and likely immunosuppression.

The logs of network devices, network security devices, and business application systems are an important data resource for troubleshooting equipment and system failures in network operations and maintenance. However, a large amount of log data is stored in different devices in a decentralized manner, which makes it difficult to view and use, and it is difficult to meet the requirements of quickly identifying, locating, and solving problems in network operation and maintenance. Therefore, in order to improve the network operation and maintenance capabilities of business personnel, it is necessary to build a unified log collection, storage, and processing system. This article introduces a log system built with ELK open source components, which has been applied in the earthquake industry network to achieve real-time collection, storage, processing, and display of logs from business systems, security devices, and network devices in the seismological industry network. The implementation details are elaborated in detail, providing a typical demonstration for the promotion and application of this architecture.

Abstract Animal behavior can be difficult, time-consuming, and costly to observe in the field directly. Innovative modeling methods, such as hidden Markov models (HMMs), allow researchers to infer unobserved animal behaviors from movement data, and implementations often assume that transitions between states occur multiple times. However, some behavioral shifts of interest, such as parturition, migration initiation, and juvenile dispersal, may only occur once during an observation period, and HMMs may not be the best approach to identify these changes. We present two change-point models for identifying single transitions in movement behavior: a location-based change-point model and a movement metric-based change-point model. We first conducted a simulation study to determine the ability of these models to detect a behavioral transition given different amounts of data and the degree of behavioral shifts. We then applied our models to two ungulate species in central Pennsylvania that were fitted with global positioning system collars and vaginal implant transmitters to test hypotheses related to parturition behavior. We fit these models in a Bayesian framework and directly compared the ability of each model to describe the parturition behavior across species. Our simulation study demonstrated that successful change point estimation using either model was possible given at least 12 h of post-change observations and 15 min fix interval. However, our models received mixed support among deer and elk in Pennsylvania due to behavioral variation between species and among individuals. Our results demonstrate that when the behavior follows the dynamics proposed by the two models, researchers can identify the timing of a behavioral change. Although we refer to detecting parturition events, our results can be applied to any behavior that results in a single change in time.

Treponeme-associated hoof disease (TAHD) is an emerging disease of conservation concern in elk (Cervus canadensis) in the Northwest USA. Elk with TAHD exhibit characteristic hoof lesions that are often accompanied by lameness and limping. The gold standard approach traditionally used for infectious disease surveillance is laboratory confirmation, which for TAHD is a histologic examination of abnormal elk hooves submitted by wildlife agencies. Diagnostic evaluation affords certainty in confirming TAHD; however, these examinations are also labor and resource intensive, and therefore, not conducive to the collection of sufficient data for epidemiologic investigations. In response, two community science (CS) surveillance strategies have been implemented in Washington State: public observations of limping elk from a web-based reporting tool and hunter reports of hoof abnormalities on harvested elk. Surveillance using CS strategies can be implemented widely and may be useful for describing broad distributional patterns of TAHD, despite their unknown relationship to laboratory-confirmed cases. We described and compared the spatial–temporal distribution of TAHD in western Washington game management units (GMU) using the two CS strategies to assess congruences and discrepancies between observed patterns. We used spatial scan statistics to identify possible core-affected and newly emerging areas at the GMU level. Lastly, we contrasted CS observations against confirmed case data to examine possible delays in TAHD detection and co-occurrence among surveillance strategies. We found public observations of limping elk often predated TAHD confirmations in GMUs by several years, while hunter-reported abnormalities predated confirmations in GMUs by several months. High co-occurrence between the presence of apparent and confirmed cases under different surveillance strategies further supports the use of CS sources. This study capitalizes on wide-reaching CS data to provide new and complementary epidemiological information that can help guide future surveillance, management, and research efforts for this novel elk hoof disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife translocations are an important conservation tool but can be challenging for the animals. For translocations to be successful, animals must adjust to their release landscape. Investigating how animals acclimate to their release landscapes can improve post‐release monitoring and inform about the management needs of translocated populations. We investigated movements and resource selection dynamics of 106 elk (Cervus canadensis) during the first 6–8 years following their release to Missouri, USA in 2011–2013. We observed evidence of spatial acclimation as determined by cessation of changes in resource selection together with monthly range sizes and fidelity of individual elk. Females showed faster evidence of acclimation in their movements following release than males. Although range fidelity for both sexes stabilized within approximately seven months, range size stabilized within approximately three months for females and stabilization began within approximately 11 months for males. Selection for multiple resources by elk also largely stabilized within their first year following release. A simple refuge‐forage trade‐off alone did not explain acclimation in resource selection. Elk selected for high‐quality food plots across the temporal extent of restoration regardless of time since release, whereas their selection for cover resources during summer increased after elk acclimated. Together, spatial acclimation generally lagged behind physiological responses observed in this system, adding to the increasing evidence that translocated animals display acclimation patterns across trait‐specific time periods. Our approach demonstrates the utility of accounting for acclimation effects across multiple spatial response metrics for improving post‐release monitoring, evaluation, and management of restored wildlife populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]