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While the shortage of qualified administrators is not as serious as the shortage of qualified teachers, some schools continue to fail to attract qualified leaders. Referred to as "hard-to-staff" schools, they are often characterized by high-poverty students, low test scores, high staff turnover, and under qualified teachers. This ERIC Digest reviews the available evidence of a leadership shortage for troubled schools and discusses likely ways that districts can improve the supply of qualified principal candidates. The Digest begins with a discussion of the problem of troubled schools finding qualified administrators. It continues with a discussion of recruiting strategies, including the possibility of financial incentives. One effective strategy is to identify, recruit, and train prospective principals from within the district's teacher corps. Financial incentives as a recruitment strategy may be only a part of the solution. The Digest next discusses how the principalship can be made more satisfying. Noting the inherent stresses in the principalship, some researchers suggest that the burden could be lessened by modifying the position through some sort of distributed leadership. The Digest concludes by discussing candidate qualifications, noting that leadership experience is often considered to be more important than teaching experience. (WFA)

In recent years, the role of the principal has become more critical in the success of schools. School improvement is often tied to principal performance, yet the practice of evaluating principal performance leaves a lot to be desired, according to some educators. This ERIC Digest reviews current principal evaluation practices and describes some emerging issues and alternatives. It begins with a discussion of how principals are typically evaluated, noting that while there is little evidence that principals or their districts see evaluation as a major problem, neither is there any indication that evaluation plays a significant role in school improvement. The Digest next discusses the shortcomings of current practices, stressing that because of the complex nature of the job, principal evaluation is difficult. The Digest then discusses the key elements of effective evaluation, what standards should be used, and what assessment instruments are available. It states that productive evaluation processes are anchored in explicit standards that make expectations clear. Increasingly, policymakers are turning to comprehensive national standards, such as those devised by the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium. Checklists seem to be the most commonly used assessment instrument. Portfolios are also being used to complement checklists. (WFA)

Afterschool programs are increasingly viewed as one viable way of bridging the gap between the end of the school day and the time parents get home from work. This digest briefly discusses why afterschool programs are needed, what potential benefits may be, what challenges may affect the viability of programs, what factors are identified with high-quality programs, and what policy issues need to be addressed. Afterschool programs are needed because there are many risks associated with leaving children and youth unsupervised during afterschool hours. Several studies have found a number of benefits result from participation in high-quality afterschool programs, including better grades, work habits, emotional adjustment, and peer relations. The biggest challenges facing the viability of afterschool programs are related to staffing, funding, and transportation. It is generally agreed that retaining skilled staff is a key in the success of afterschool programs. To date, there has been little systematic and conclusive research on afterschool programs, and policy issues are not fully developed in most communities. (WFA)

Beginning principals are often overwhelmed by their job. Traditionally, they have been left to fend for themselves. For this reason, schools and districts have been implementing formal induction programs to help the principals during their first year on the job. This digest examines the challenges faced by new administrators and the steps that districts can take to provide a smooth entry into the principalship. It also describes characteristics of good induction programs. New administrators experience many stresses as they adjust to their new position. Among the most stressful are supervising personnel and adjusting to the social climate and culture of the organization. Good induction programs help by providing mentors who in turn provide instructional, administrative, and emotional support. Other suggestions for effective induction programs include the following: help the newcomer stay focused on the big picture; provide a variety of strategies beyond one-on-one mentoring; and help the newcomer adjust to the culture of the district through visits and conferences. The digest concludes by providing some general and specific external resources for supporting district induction programs. (WFA)

Turning around a low-performing school is a complex process in which cause-effect relationships are difficult to isolate. But recent interest in helping low-performing schools--spurred on by the reforms mandated by the No Child Left Behind Act--has generated some useful research and thoughtful analysis. This digest explores some of the key insights from that literature. The digest first discusses how low-performing schools are defined: recently by failure to achieve state-mandated accountability targets, particularly test scores. Next it discusses why schools perform poorly, focusing on three prominent matters: demographics, insufficient resources, and ineffective school practices. The next section of the digest discuses sanctions and their effects on low-performing schools. This is followed by discussion of how external assistance, from the state or district, can help low-performing schools, noting three promising practices: (1) providing technical assistance; (2) aligning policies and practices with academic goals; and (3) allocating resources to support achievement. Finally the Digest discusses the principal's role in turning around a school's overall performance. (Contains 12 references.) (WFA)

This document presents an outline of a number of social, economic, and demographic trends that influence the effectiveness of instruction and the social development of youth across the country. It contains numbers and statistics, recommendations, and implications, along with 30 references. The document covers trends in the following areas: (1) racial and ethnic diversity, including data on racial and ethnic demographics, and mobility and poverty among African American and Hispanic populations; (2) changing family patterns; (3) poverty, particularly the poverty of children; (4) homelessness, focusing on homeless children and youth, the fastest growing segment of the homeless population; (5) teen pregnancy, including recommendations for sex-education programs in schools; (6) the availability of drugs and alcohol; (7) factors that inhibit risky student behavior; and (8) demographic planning, including the use of demographic data to support educational agendas and to decide how to allocate resources. (WFA)

This digest examines a completed pilot program in performance-driven budgeting (PDB) in the New York City public-school system. PDB links school-level budgeting and school planning; that is, decisions about resources must be aligned with school-developed instructional-improvement plans. The digest highlights how PDB came about; its primary goal; how it was operationalized; what major changes it brought at the central office and in pilot schools; and what has been learned from the New York experience. PDB was launched in 1997 in 61 pilot schools in 4 of New York's districts as a result of a study of a similar system successfully implemented in Edmonton, Alberta. The goal of the New York program was to provide local educators with more control and flexibility in using resources to improve student performance. The program was implemented with the help of the Galaxy 2000 computerized budgeting and financial management tool. Over time the central office greatly reduced its control over resources, and the pilot schools were free to match their allocations to the needs of their students. The Digest concludes that the pilot program confirmed that student achievement does improve when schools have increased control over resources and instructional planning. (Contains 11 references.) (WFA)

This digest describes the nature and implications of scientifically based research (SBR). SBR grew out of the No Child Left Behind act of 2001, which stipulates that federally funded programs and practices must be grounded in scientifically based research. Scientifically based research is defined here as "persuasive research that empirically examines important questions using appropriate methods that ensure reproducible and applicable findings." The question of whether education has a scientific basis is controversial, however, and has been debated since the late 19th century. Advocates see SBR as a means of improving education and developing a knowledge base for what works. Alternatively, some scholars fear focusing on what works may blind educators to important aspects and potentially harmful unanticipated outcomes, or side effects, of education processes. The implications of SBR for school leaders are still emerging. At the very least, those relying on federal funding are required to select programs and practices supported by scientifically based research, but an adequate database of what works if far from complete. In the meantime, until general guidelines and recommendations are developed, school leaders must rely on their professional judgment regarding programs and practices in their schools. (Contains 10 references.) (WFA)

The use of time in school is undergoing close scrutiny. Over the years, educators have sought to enhance learning time through such reforms as block scheduling and year-round schools. School time can be conceived as an inverted pyramid, in which allocated time (total time in the school day or year) forms the top tier, engaged time (time-on-task) forms the middle tier, and academic learning time forms the bottom tier. Outside-core subjects, such as music, also take up time and are issues of importance to stakeholders. Ineffective ways of managing, preparation for standardized tests, maintaining classroom discipline, and special-day activities (Halloween parties and science fairs) reduce time for teaching. To address these issues, The Responsible Classroom model narrows the scope of the curriculum and lengthens time blocks for indepth learning. Other possibilities include shortening the school year with an added intercession period for low-achieving students, and after-school learning. Most states require a minimum number of school days per academic year, and some use extended-learning programs to add instructional time. Adding time comes with a high cost. Thus, schools should focus on maximizing student engagement and raising the quality of teaching. (Contains 16 references.) (RT)

In the current climate of accountability, the responsibilities of principals have increased. The new role of principals requires new forms of training, and standards-based reform is generating major changes in principal-preparation programs. This digest examines some of those changes. First, it looks at the effectiveness of principal-preparation programs. There is a general perception that most programs are ineffective, but there is not enough research to support or abrogate such perceptions. Next, the digest explains how the knowledge base of principal preparation is changing. Academic theory and field experience, while both important, are being redefined to fit the new standards. Next, the digest discusses how leadership programs can improve the quality of principal candidates. Mentoring, aspiring principal academies, and formal nomination by principals and superintendents are some of the strategies being used. The digest next discusses the need for continuing inservice education for principals and advanced certification that will lead to the development of principals and elevate the status of the profession. Finally, the digest discusses ways that states and districts can support leadership development. States hold considerable influence through licensure and accreditation requirements, and districts can apply leverage through collaboration with university programs. (Contains 13 references.) (WFA)

This information analysis discusses the changing role of the principal in light of the growth of standards-based accountability during the decade of the 1990s and into the 21st century. The paper begins with an overview of the expectations of school leaders and the changes in school leadership. This is followed by definitions of school leadership that include professional standards, core practices that seem consistent with the standards, the various roles the principal plays, and some of the common challenges the principal faces in meeting expectations. The next section discusses the dominance of instructional leadership over the past several decades; many educators believe that student learning should be at the center of the principal's role. The remainder of the paper addresses the role of the principal in light of the current reform movement. Topics include the principal as leader in implementing school reform; leadership styles, particularly distributed, or collaborative, leadership; and the principal as moral leader and role model for the school community. (Contains 13 Web sources and 35 references.) (WFA)

Results of research and evaluation efforts are just beginning to shed some light on how to create and maintain high-quality after-school programs. This research roundup reviews five documents that touch upon a range of issues related to the developing field of after-school programming. "Getting School-Based After-School Programming Off the Ground" (Grossman, Walker, & Raley, 2001) shares preliminary findings regarding what it takes to plan and launch school-based after-school programs. "Extended Learning Initiatives: Opportunities and Implementation Challenges" (Council of Chief State School Officers, 2000) provides detailed profiles of state-sponsored extended-learning initiatives operating in six states. "Sustainability in School-Linked After-School Programs: Leadership, Program Quality, and Sustainability" (Pechman & Feister, 2002) gives practitioners, funders, and policymakers a better understanding of the challenges involved in sustaining emerging after-school programs. "When Schools Stay Open Late: The National Evaluation of the 21st Century Community Learning Centers Program" (U.S. Department of Education, 2003) reports on first-year findings from a sample of sites in the 21st Century Community Learning Centers Program. "Afterschool Education: Approaches to an Emerging Field" (Noam, Biancarosa, & Dechausay, 2003) provides an overview of current knowledge and practices to help "scaffold" future development in the field of after-school education. (Author/WFA)

Competition exists when vendors of a service are available to meet the demands of customers. In the education sector, parents and children are consumers, and schools and districts are the suppliers. Theoretically, more competition should translate into higher quality schooling and enhanced educational outcomes. This digest reviews the literature that examines the relationship between competition and quality. In the U.S., parents may choose between public-school districts, among public-school districts, and among public schools within a given district. Generally, when there are more choices, there is more competition. Measuring competition's effect on educational outcomes, however, is not clear-cut. Measures include the Herfindahl Index, percentage of students in private schools, and student test scores. Greater competition raises test scores, but only modestly. It seems to improve educational attainment (years in school), increase graduation rates, and raise students' future earnings. This evidence needs to be considered carefully because bias may exist from cross-sectional experimental research design, and also from double-counting findings or overestimating effects. Increasing competition may raise effectiveness and efficiency of public schools, though not dramatically. Equity issues must be considered. If low-income families benefit most, then these reforms may be redistributive. (RT)

School-reform efforts in recent years have stressed, and expanded, the leadership role of the principal. But in the view of many analysts, the task of transforming a school is too complex for one person to accomplish alone. Consequently, a new model of leadership is developing: distributed leadership. This Research Roundup summarizes five documents that discuss different facets of the distributed leadership model. (1) "Investigating School Leadership Practice: A Distributed Perspective" (James P. Spillane, Richard Halverson, and John B. Diamond) provides a coherent theoretical foundation for a distributed view of leadership. (2) "Building a New Structure for School Leadership" (Richard F. Elmore) links distributed leadership to the school's fundamental task of helping students learn. (3) "Co-Principals: A Double Dose of Leadership" (Michael Chirichello) explains how one district has successfully established co-principalships in its elementary schools. (4) "The Bridgeport Story: What Urban School Districts Need to Know About School Leadership Teams" (The Education Alliance) shares a framework and some practical tools for formalizing distributed leadership. (5) "The Bay Area School Reform Collaborative: Building the Capacity to Lead" (Michael Aaron Copland) describes how one school-reform network has succeeded in creating a broader base of leadership in its schools. (WFA)

Most principals are aware that the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 makes it mandatory for school leaders who depend on federal funding to select and implement programs that are based on scientific research. This publication reviews five documents that offer insights into what is meant by scientifically based research and help school leaders evaluate the scientific basis of practices and programs. In Senate testimony, Grover J. Whitehurst stresses the need for increasing the amount of scientific research in education. A report by the Comprehensive School Reform Program Office provides school leaders with guidance on the use of scientific research in initiating comprehensive reform efforts. In "Scientifically-Based Research," Stephen Raudenbush anticipates and addresses questions that educators might have about the nature and implications of scientific research in education. Evelyn Jacob and C. Stephen White edited a special theme issue of "Educational Researcher" on scientific research in education. (RT)

Standards-based reform and the demand for accountability and higher student achievement over the past decade have created challenges for school boards. Should boards continue their historical low-key, hands-off approach to student learning? Or should they take on a leadership role by capitalizing on their traditional responsibility as local policymakers? This ERIC Digest describes the nature and potential of such policymaking efforts. Based on a review of research, the digest concludes that there is little empirical evidence to show how board policy affects student learning. Much of the literature consists of policy recommendations and opinions. However, the research suggests that boards can be a key part of educational improvement in a number of ways. Boards can support reform by mobilizing public support, providing adequate resources, and hiring qualified superintendents. Board members can establish policy committing themselves to systematic strategic planning based on assessment data. Boards can establish goals that all students will receive instruction from fully certified teachers. Board members can be aware of and begin to act on the provisions of the No Child Left Behind Act. Boards can view coordinating board policy to support student learning as a best practice. (Contains 11 references.) (WFA)

Within the last 5 years, policymakers and practitioners have confronted the challenge of replacing many retiring educational leaders. To address this issue, standards for educators themselves have been proposed, some modeled around those of the Interstate School Leadership Licensure Consortium (ISLLC). Attention is also turning to advanced certification to recognize expert leadership. Educational leadership is also undergoing redefinition as leaders immerse themselves in the "core technology" of teaching and learning, use data to make decisions, and align staff development with student learning needs. Distributed leadership, where school leadership responsibilities are taken on by other school staff members, enhances the school's effectiveness and relieves some of the principal's burdens. Educational leadership development occurs now through formalized mentoring programs. A "curriculum" for leadership is also under development, in which best-practice models are integrated with advanced certification programs. State support can make a difference in leadership preparation by pointing a direction and getting priorities; expanding the candidate pool; enhancing administrator training and professional development; setting licensure, certification, and accreditation requirements; enhancing the conditions of practice; and allocating legal authority. Efforts to improve leadership are complex and multilayered, but they have one overarching theme: Effective leadership is defined by student learning. (Contains 13 references.) (RT)

To outsiders, the role of school superintendent has always been a little mystifying. This digest examines how superintendents are responding to their changing environment, what leadership strategies they are using, and whether the superintendency is in a state of crisis. Although fears exist of a dwindling pool of applicants, studies have shown that the average tenure of a superintendent is at least 5 years and that many are largely confident and committed, if sometimes frustrated. Superintendents have to balance instructional, political, and managerial roles, all of which are necessary and sometimes conflicting. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act will change the work of superintendents by making testing an annual event, widening the gap between accountability and authority, heightening the superintendent's instructional role, and affecting their relationship with the school board of education. Superintendents can act as instructional leaders by focusing professional development on instructional issues and basing principal evaluation on instructional improvement. The superintendent's role can be strengthened by having universities revise leadership preparation programs to provide district leaders with practical knowledge and skills, having school boards work with superintendents to clarify expectations for performance and evaluation, and having policymakers explore ways to balance the accountability-authority equation. (Contains 12 references.) (RT)

Although instructional leadership is acknowledged to be a critical skill in educational administration, few principals and superintendents have had in-depth training for that role, especially in a standards-based environment. Current definitions of instructional leadership include much deeper involvement in the "core technology" of teaching and learning, carry more sophisticated views of professional development, and emphasize the use of data to make decisions, in comparison to the definitions of the 1980s. Leadership is also distributed across the school community, with principals, superintendents, teachers, and policymakers having complementary responsibilities. Leadership preparation programs include cohort programs, case studies, problem-based learning, and internships. School districts can build instructional leadership by expecting all employees to be both teachers and learners. A key strategy in New York City's District Two is the "WalkThrough" program. It begins with a meeting to review goals and objectives, analyze test data (including discussions of individual children), and discuss teacher performance. The meeting is followed by a visit to every classroom, which involves interaction with teachers and students, and concludes with an evaluation meeting. The WalkThroughs are both supervisory, underscoring the principal's accountability, and supportive, providing the occasion for dialogue and coaching. (Contains 13 references.) (RT)

P-16 education is an integrated system of education stretching from early childhood through a 4-year college, emphasizing continuity of student learning and alignment across school levels. It seeks to address problems with the present educational system, considering, for example, that "A" students in high-poverty schools score at the same level as "C" and "D" students in affluent schools, and 29 percent of college freshmen take one or more remedial courses in reading, writing, or mathematics. P-16 education has five central goals: to have every child ready for school by age 6, proficient in reading by 8, proficient in geometry and algebra by 13, completing a rigorous core curriculum by 17, and expected to complete the first 2 years of college by 21. P-16 strengths are inclusiveness, alignment, removal of artificial barriers, and reductions in level of remediation. Challenges include reliance on individual leaders, too little time, too much turf consciousness, lack of evidence, and lack of a common language. However, 25 states have passed P-16 legislation, implementing the system either as a broad, sweeping reform, or as a continuum of incremental changes. Further research is needed on the impact of P-16 on student achievement and appropriate forms of governance and finance. (Contains 12 references.) (RT)

Businesses are increasingly making inroads into the classroom, particularly in underfunded schools. The dramatic rise in commercial activities in schools has sparked intense public debate, triggering a U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) report and various regulatory attempts at district, state, and federal levels. This digest offers an overview of commercial activities in schools, discusses ethical and legal issues, offers policy guidelines, and highlights strategies for negotiating contracts in line with the needs and values of schools. The GAO identified four types of commercial activities in schools: product sales, direct advertising, indirect advertising, and market research. Ethical concerns include children being forced to view advertising in the classroom, marketing of unhealthful food and drinks, and invasion of student privacy, some or all of this done without informed parental consent. Some Internet policy recommendations are that children under age 13 should not provide personal information, that teachers should analyze sites for appropriateness before letting students use them for research, and that they should guide Internet research to limit students' exposure to banner advertising. Strategies for cultivating sponsorship arrangements include setting educational goals and a timeline for the sponsorship, and frequently assessing sponsorship activities. (RT)

School systems have long recognized the need for public support and participation, but now many districts are renewing their commitment to strengthen the ties with their communities. To build community support for schools that facilitates student achievement, school boards are developing communication strategies that routinely reach diverse community groups. This process is called public engagement. This digest examines how public engagement can foster student achievement, how school boards and administrators can facilitate the public-engagement process, and how school leaders can solicit enduring support from stakeholders. Public engagement can promote student achievement through the collaboration of supportive parents. It can also help the entire community by identifying social and health factors that interfere with learning, such as teen pregnancy, inadequate nutrition, and lack of health care. School boards and principals are in position to play key roles in involving families with their children's academic activities in meeting educational standards. Involved families can also effectively advocate for schools with the general public. Five methods that help school boards and administrators engage the public are focus groups, telephone polling, public meetings, e-mail, and study circles. (Contains 11 references.) (RT)

Students who are the target of bullying episodes commonly suffer serious, long-term academic, physical, and emotional consequences. Unfortunately, school personnel often minimize, underestimate, tolerate, or ignore the extent of bullying and the harm it can cause. This digest examines the problem of bullying and some of its effects, and discusses preventive steps schools and states are taking. Bullying occurs when a person willfully and repeatedly exercises power over another with hostile or malicious intent. It can be physical or psychological in form. In a survey of more than 15,000 sixth through tenth graders, 30 percent reported bullying others, being targets, or both. Everyday approximately 160,000 students stay home from school out of fear of being bullied. Victims often have difficulty concentrating on schoolwork, show low performance, and have relatively high rates of absenteeism. Psychological symptoms of victims include anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem. To counteract bullying, schools can distribute a written anti-bullying policy to everyone in the school community and apply the policy consistently and fairly. Positive socialization and anger-management skills can be taught. An anti-bullying culture can be developed among peers. Some states are beginning to require schools to adopt anti-bullying policies. (Contains 17 references.) (RT)

This digest discusses the rationale for changing school calendars. It describes what some districts are doing and advises school leaders and board members on the issues that typically arise when a calendar is changed. It examines the nationwide push toward a longer school year, driven in part by so-called high-stakes testing and mandated increases in instructional hours. The digest also looks at the district and state levels and how their calendars are being adjusted in response to local imperatives. In Michigan, for example, district superintendents had to incorporate a state-required increase of 108 instructional hours. While some year-round schools offer intercessions during breaks for students who need remedial help, other districts are exploring extra days, after-school programs, and/or summer sessions as ways to extend learning. Researchers and educators recognize that the traditional school calendar does not correlate with children's learning patterns. However, experts agree that it is of little value to add days to the calendar without a concrete plan for using the time to enhance instruction. Viewed this way, the calendar becomes a variable that educators can tailor to the particular needs of their students; modified and extended calendars are rapidly becoming the norm in schools across the country. (Contains 14 references.) (RJM)

This article examines an increasingly popular alternative to government-funded voucher plans: private voucher and scholarship plans. Through the 1998-99 school year, spending on privately funded voucher programs totalled $61 million. Private vouchers began with the Golden Rule Program in Indianapolis in 1991 and was inspired by insurance CEO J. Patrick Rooney. Rooney limited participation in the plan to less affluent families and covered only partial tuition. His ideas caught the attention of other executives and institutions, some of whom started their own voucher system. A few of these programs are reviewed here, along with their effectiveness and some financial considerations. Private voucher plans include the Children's Scholarship Fund, which was funded with $100 million and targets Catholic elementary schools, and New York City's privately funded School Choice Scholarship Program, which has been reported to improve the educational gains of low-income children. Researchers have reported that African-American students may have the most to gain from private scholarship programs. Such successes have built support for tax assistance for education costs, despite failed bills that would have given families tax breaks on various private- or public-school expenses. State legislatures, however, are introducing financial incentives, such as tax subsidies and tax credits. (Contains 27 references.) (RJM)

This article examines so-called "alternative schools," taking care to define precisely what is meant by this designation. There are many types of alternative education available to the public, including those programs intended for special-education students, advanced-placement students, and home-schooled children. The first alternative schools emerged in the 1960s as urban districts tried to help struggling minority and poor youngsters succeed in school. Today, these schools' philosophies, purpose, and facilities vary widely, but they typically serve 200 or fewer students and have a greater staff/student ratio than regular public schools. The types of alternative schools include those that try to reform unruly or adjudicated adolescents and those that try to change the school experience and the way students think about school. A problem with programs that try to rehabilitate students is that by targeting difficult students, equity in the schools might be threatened by the segregation of minorities, the poor, and the disabled. A criticism of schools that try to change the entire school experience, such as the Waldorf Schools and Harmony Schools, is that they adopt methods without fully understanding the impact of these approaches. It is recommended that alternative educators gain more control over who attends and that they recruit a more diversified student body. (Contains 24 references.) (RJM)

This article looks at a rapidly growing form of distance education: virtual schools. Also known as cyber schools, these Internet-based programs enroll fewer than 50,000 students nationwide, but more and more companies are entering this market. Some examples of these virtual schools are the Willoway CyberSchool, which was founded by a former elementary-school teacher; K 12 Inc., established by former U.S. Secretary of Education William Bennett; VHS Inc., a virtual high school that was developed with federal funding; Florida Virtual School, the nation's largest virtual school, offering free courses to any student in grades 9-12 in the state; the Internet Academy in Washington State, which fills gaps in homeschooled students' instruction; the Kentucky Virtual High School, which offers advanced, specialized, and foreign-language courses free to public students; and the Colorado Online School Consortium, which was founded to provide advanced-placement courses to students attending rural and small schools and homeschoolers. The increasing number of virtual schools has raised concern with education planners since most school districts receive funding based on student enrollment. States are having to revisit their school-finance laws as virtual schools compete for state dollars. Many believe a set number of virtual courses can benefit a student but decry full reliance on computers, believing that parent-child interaction is the essence of homeschooling. (RJM)

This article examines contract schools and their influence on U.S. education. Schools that are contracted out may be viewed as a privatization development that both parallels and builds upon the charter-school movement. They can be defined as publicly funded schools operated by an independent group of teachers and administrators under a contract with a public agency. This paper focuses on trends in education businesses over the past several years and discusses pioneering education management ventures, such as the Edison Project and TesseracT Group Inc. Education management organizations (EMOs) have found that the fast-growing charter movement creates a hospitable environment for entrepreneurial efforts. Although private-management efforts have generated intense scrutiny, it is difficult to judge their success or failure. The article describes the mixed results with these schools in Massachusetts, Michigan, and Arizona. Other issues that are examined include contract schools' profitability, efficiency, and the competition they face. Research has shown that many contract schools attempt to make a profit by eliminating extracurricular activities and by streamlining curricula. They also have a tendency to weed out at-risk students to boost test scores, particularly in those states that do not fund special-education students at higher levels than mainstream students. (Contains 34 references.) (RJM)

This document looks at the increasing popularity of charter schools for intradistrict school choice. During 2000, about 1,700 charter schools were serving some 250,000 students in the United States. Charter schools typically begin as preexisting schools or as "startups" born with charters. States seem to have ambivalent attitudes toward charter schools, having either "strong" or "weak" laws on their books. A recent study shows that charter legislation thrives in states with a policy encouraging entrepreneurship, poor test scores, Republican legislative control, and proximity to other strong-law states. As a whole, charter schools are somewhat more racially diverse, serve a slightly higher percentage of economically disadvantaged students, and serve a slightly lower proportion of disabled and limited-English-proficiency students than do other public schools. They are havens for children with bad educational experiences and have stimulated improvements in the broader education system; most districts respond with energy to charter-school initiatives. As regards quality of education, statewide evaluations of charter schools in Colorado, Arizona, Massachusetts, Michigan, California, and New Jersey show mixed results, though some programs are too new to draw strong conclusions. Some innovative charter programs that are described include residential schools and cyber charter schools. Other issues that are covered here include implementation problems, equity, governance and regulatory issues, accountability, staffing policies, church-state issues, and key policy issues. (Contains 89 references.) (RJM)

This paper examines grade spans (grade configurations) and their importance in community school systems. Research has shown that geographic location often dictates the kind of grade configuration districts use. Furthermore, every grade configuration has strengths and weaknesses, and school officials must focus on developing the positive potential within any given grade span. However, knowing which aspects to enhance can be difficult. The sheer number of variables that come into play when measuring grade-span effectiveness complicates efforts to understand this important component of education. For example, in one of the few empirical studies on grade span, researchers found that 8th-graders in elementary settings (K-8, K-9, 3-8) outperformed 8th-graders in other grade configurations. But the question as to why they learned better remains unanswered. Many current grade configurations can be traced to historical developments, such as passage of child-labor laws, meaning that such configurations had little to do with educational efficacy. Research shows that grade span can work in subtle and not-so-subtle ways to affect student learning. One study found that students suffer achievement loss during transition years and that students who transitioned to high school in grade 7 were less likely to drop out than students who began high school in grades 9 or 10. (RJM)

This paper describes magnet schools as thematic islands of choice within a traditional district-assignment plan. These "islands of choice" are currently the most popular destination with those who exercise some choice in where they send their children to school. During the 1991-92 school year, 3,200 magnet schools were in operation, hosting some 1.2 million students. Started in the early 1970s, magnet schools have shown to be effective in reducing racial isolation and in providing high-quality educational programs. There are different types of magnet programs and different instructional results. A study of teacher self-reports found that whole-school magnets featured higher levels of internal and external community when compared with program-within-school magnets. A comparison of graduates of comprehensive urban high schools with magnet-school graduates showed that the latter demonstrated equal or better social development and educational/occupational aspirations, and they frequently outperformed their conventional high-school peers in math, reading, science, and social studies. Even with these positive reports, there are some problems with magnet schools. One study showed that when student ability is considered in the evaluation design, magnet students perform at lower levels than do their non-magnet counterparts. Access to magnet schools can also be difficult for Latino and African-American students. (Contains 23 references.) (RJM)

This document examines many of the issues surrounding school choice. It summarizes the prevalence of school choice and touches on elements of the debate, such as the dilemma in finding the right balance between individual/family freedom and the interests of the community. In looking at school-choice options, the paper divides them into intrasectional (public) choice plans and intersectional choice plans. One example of an intrasectional or intradistrict plan is the magnet school, which is the most prevalent instrument of choice. Other types of intrasectional options include controlled-choice plans, charter schools, and contract schools. Plans that can be classified as intersectional choice plans include public voucher plans, as well as private voucher and scholarship plans. These plans allow students to attend schools in different districts, and various examples of where these plans have been tried are discussed. Other "choice" plans that are discussed are homeschooling, virtual schools, and alternative schools. The document describes how these various plans serve minority and disadvantaged students, looks at community and parental satisfaction, outlines some successful programs along with student achievement, evaluates tax credits and legislation, and lists some unfavorable outcomes associated with different school-choice options. (Contains approximately 300 references.) (RJM)

This report discusses homeschooling as an option for parents looking for educational choice. Keeping track of homeschoolers is difficult since many return to the public schools. Some estimates claim that in the late 1960s there were 10,000 to 15,000 homeschooled children in the U.S. By 1999, those who were homeschooled ranged in numbers from 640,000 to 958,000--about 2 percent of the school-age population. Opinion polls taken in 1985 revealed that just 16 percent of people surveyed approved of homeschooling. However, this approval rating had risen to 36 percent by 1997. Even with increased acceptance of homeschooling, opinions on homeschooling's effectiveness remain sharply divided with 43 percent believing that homeschooling contributes to raising academic standards and 50 percent believing the opposite. The rising number of homeschooled children has paralleled increasing acceptance of the practice at the state level. Homeschoolers have also been shown to be above average on standardized test scores. Public schools have increasingly reached out to the homeschool community and most colleges are now set up to evaluate and accept homeschooled students. A survey of 513 public and private higher education institutions found that only two lacked policies to critique homeschooled applicants during the 1998-99 school year. (Contains 25 references.) (RJM)

This article discusses how rising student enrollment and a projected wave of teacher retirements will affect the teacher corps. It describes the possible shortage of teachers in the upcoming years as a problem more of specialization than outright shortage. Math and science teachers and special-education teachers will be hardest to find, as will be teachers from minority groups. Some possible remedies to these difficulties include linking teacher standards with salaries, creating national recruitment initiatives, and expanding teacher-education programs in high-need fields. The paper focuses on teacher quality and its vital importance in education. High-quality teachers must have basic skills, must pass licensure tests, and must possess experience. Finding high-quality teachers begins with the hiring process. The best hiring systems identify the teacher skills most wanted in the classroom and validate the selection process to ensure it is effective. Once hired, teachers must be given professional development to help them excel in the classroom and encourage them to remain a teaching professional. School leaders should see staff development as an ongoing process and should enable teachers to become self-directed in a culture that values professional collegial interaction. (Contains 16 references.) (RJM)

This document provides an overview of public-school voucher plans. Educational vouchers originated in the 1960s when Milton Friedman argued that vouchers would improve educational efficiency. Parents would receive the equivalent of per-pupil expenditures in the form of vouchers that could then be used at any school, either public and private. But the plan has met with resistance; public-opinion polls in 2001 revealed that 62 percent of respondents opposed allowing parents to choose a private school at public expense. In those cases where students attend private schools with public funds, 82 percent of the public believes that these private schools should be held as accountable as public schools. The report describes some of the legislative action and referenda that surround vouchers, along with constitutionality issues being played out in Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Cleveland, Ohio; Florida; Maine; and Vermont. To further complicate the issue, studies of voucher systems give mixed results as to their effectiveness, and simply implementing these programs has been challenging. The document describes the effect of public vouchers on private schools, their impact on public schools, and their cost-effectiveness. The article closes with some recommendations and delivers some arguments for progressive voucher policies. (Contains 55 references.) (RJM)

This article discusses some of the various school-reform strategies that have been implemented since the publication of A Nation at Risk. It opens with an examination of standards-based accountability and some of the concerns and objections surrounding this movement. It asks whether standards are achieving their purpose, looks at the role of state policymakers and school leaders, and encourages leaders to be the champion for standards by focusing on developing capacity, by helping teachers connect standards with the goals and commitments they already have, by using data to focus reform, and by enlisting district-level support. The article then turns to comprehensive school reform and encourages districts that are considering this reform to count the cost, come together, learn about available programs, and make a commitment. Shared decision-making (SDM) is the next strategy that is addressed. Critics complain that SDM adds complexity and ambiguity to the principal's role, diverts teachers' attention from classroom issues, and still leaves school boards accountable. Supporters claim that SDM improves the quality of decisions, strengthens staff morale, and increases school effectiveness. The last strategy examined is market strategies, which encompass school choice, parental decisions, and charter schools. No matter which strategy is chosen, stakeholders must communicate and provide staff development. (Contains 38 references.) (RJM)

This paper examines labor issues that affect school employees. It is divided into four sections: school reform; teacher compensation; scope of bargaining; and collaborative (nonadversarial) bargaining. The longest section, which focuses on various reform movements in the schools, examines accountability, school choice, and the questions surrounding charter employees' entitlement to organize and bargain collectively. It shows that questions surrounding unionization become particularly difficult when they involve religion-based charter schools. The teacher-compensation section looks at the following subjects: compensation and teacher standards, basing pay on knowledge and skills, and the role of supply and demand. Much of the discussion is based on the following guidelines: clearly define the desired result, choose the measure of assessment and consider its feasibility and cost, define the criteria of success and the results necessary to receive rewards, determine the amount of the award, and find ways to discourage teachers from "teaching to the test." The scope-of-bargaining section briefly examines the increasingly narrow range of bargaining for public-education employees. The section on collaborative bargaining outlines interest-based bargaining; the "living contract" (which focuses on common goals among bargaining parties); and the teacher union reform network, which concentrates on improving student performance rather than wages and benefits. (Contains 26 references.) (RJM)

The five studies reviewed in this brief publication examine the scope of current research on service learning and its effects on participants. An introduction defines service learning as "an instructional practice in which students perform service as a way of complementing the knowledge and skills learned in the classroom." Titles and authors of the works summarized are as follows: "Research on School-Based Service-Learning: The Evidence Builds" (Shelley H. Billig); "Summary Report: National Evaluation of Learn and Serve America" (Alan Melchior); "An Assessment of Elementary School Service-Learning Teaching Methods: Using Service-Learning Goals" (Cliff Akujobi and Robert Simmons); "The Effects of Service Learning on Middle School Students' Social Responsibility and Academic Success" (Peter Scales and colleagues); "Is Service-Learning Really Better Than Community Service? A Study of High School Service Program Outcomes" (Andrew Furco). (RT)

This "Research Roundup" focuses on how schools can benefit when educational leaders use data to challenge their intuition and assumptions in their decision-making. In "Building an Automated Student Record System: A Step-by-Step Guide for Local and State Education Agencies," Barbara S. Clements provides administrators with a quick but comprehensive introduction to the subject, outlining 12 steps, from setting goals to reporting the data. "Data-Driven Decision-Making," by the Education Commission of the States, is an issue brief aimed at helping educators come to grips with the challenges of the new ESEA accountability requirements. "Using Data to Improve Schools," by the American Association of School Administrators, outlines a process whereby good information is used well, leading to smarter decisions, defusing the emotion in controversial issues, and providing fuel for meaningful dialogue within the educational community. Thomas P. Jandris offers principals a primer on making assessment a part of their school's culture in "Data-Based Decision-Making: Essentials for Principals." Edie L. Holcomb argues, in "Getting Excited About Data: How to Combine People, Passion, and Proof," that although data analysis inevitably revolves around numbers, which many people regard as cold, abstract, or even dehumanizing, human hopes, fears, and passions are close beneath the surface. (RT)

Opinions abound on what students should wear to class. Some see student dress as a safety issue; others see it as a student-rights issue. The issue of dress codes and uniform policies has been tackled in the classroom, the boardroom, and the courtroom. This Policy Report examines the whole fabric of the debate on dress codes and uniform policies through a collection of short reports; policy recommendations; and opinions by administrators, teachers, students, and civil libertarians. Topics of reports include background and history of dress codes and uniform policies in the United States, focusing on the past 15 years; arguments for and arguments against dress codes and uniforms; anecdotes from schools that have implemented dress codes or uniform policies; a recap of research findings on the effects of dress codes and uniform policies; a roundup of legal actions and important court decisions regarding dress codes and uniform policies; and a state-by-state listing of policies on student dress. Guidelines for developing, implementing, and enforcing school dress codes and school-uniform policies are offered from a variety of sources. Also included in the report are a sample dress code and 51 references. (WFA)

Never before has the need for effective mentoring programs for principals been more urgent. Record student enrollment, an anticipated retirement of about 40 percent of principals, and a shrinking pool of those who aspire to be principals have brought about a shortage of principals and an alarming lack of qualified applicants. This research roundup summarizes five literary resources useful in addressing this situation: "A Step into the Principalship" (Gary Bloom and Marty Krovetz); "The School Administrator Handbook: Leading, Mentoring, and Participating in the Internship Program" (Ronald L. Capasso and John C. Daresh); "Leaders Helping Leaders: A Practical Guide to Administrative Mentoring (Second Edition)" (John Daresh); "Albuquerque Principals Have ESP" (Carl J. Weingartner);"The Mentor's Guide" (Lois J. Zachary); and "Getting Personal: New York City's District Two Puts Priority on Principals" (Liz Willen). (RT)

The definition of the role of school principal is currently undergoing transformation in light of modern school issues and a shortage of qualified candidates. In "A Century's Quest to Understand School Leadership," Kenneth Leithwood and Daniel Duke conclude that recent thinking has focused on six forms of leadership: instructional, transformational, moral, participative, managerial, and contingent. In "Leadership for Student Learning: Reinventing the Principalship," the Institute for Education Leadership tells why many individuals with administrative credentials choose not to pursue jobs and suggests some solutions. In "Leading Learning Communities: Standards for What Principals Should Know and Be Able To Do," the National Association of Elementary School Principals proposes six standards to provide a professional development agenda for practicing principals. In "Leadership in Education: Five Commonalities," Mark Goldberg distills five common traits from interviews with educational leaders. In "Trying to Stay Ahead of the Game: Superintendents and Principals Talk about School Leadership," Steve Farkas and others provide clues on how principals feel about their jobs. (RT)

Schools within schools are large public schools that have been divided into smaller autonomous subunits to create a sense of community and cohesiveness among students and staff. This digest discusses the benefits, drawbacks, varieties, and sources of funding for schools within schools. Designers of these schools seek the advantages of both large and small schools by placing students into small learning communities while using the resources of the larger existing facilities. Benefits include higher test scores relative to larger schools; enhancement of students' self-perceptions, both socially and academically; higher attendance and lower dropout rates; fewer discipline problems; and greater cost effectiveness. Possible drawbacks include emphasizing the sense of belonging over academic rigor, loss of teacher seniority if they are transferred between schools, and possible reduction in funding for equipment. School-within-school types are vertical-house plans, ninth-grade house plans, at-risk schools, career academies and clusters, special curriculum models, newcomer schools, parent-participation plans, advisory systems, and charter schools. Administrators must assess the need for and the purpose of their plan before committing resources for school restructuring. Some funding organizations are the Annenberg Foundation, the Pew Charitable Trust, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Education's Smaller Learning Communities program. (Contains 12 references.) (RT)

Schools are realizing that carefully collected and analyzed data represent the key to educational improvement. This digest outlines the most useful types of data to drive the school-improvement process, steps that must be taken to collect and analyze data, the role of administrators in guiding the data-driven reform process, and results that can be expected. Data provide an accurate way to identify problem areas in school programs, reveal strengths and weaknesses in students' knowledge and skills, and provide meaningful guidance on how teaching practices can and should be altered. The most useful types of data include student assessment data, student demographic data, perceptions data, and school program data. Through data-driven inquiry, school staff can identify areas in need of improvement, select high-priority problems for correction, and outline improvement strategies. After plans of action have been implemented and completed, school staff can continue data collection and analysis to determine whether to modify or discontinue corrective actions. Principals and other administrators can best support data-driven reform processes by providing vision and leadership. Results can include a higher level of student achievement and the school assuming a more professional and civil culture of inquiry. (Contains 11 references.) (RT)

Policymakers and educators are taking a new look at incentives as they work to improve accountability systems. This ERIC Digest examines the role of rewards and sanctions in school reform and identifies key issues in implementing incentive systems. The new accountability is based on five components: carefully designed standards, assessments aligned to these standards, incentives, publicly reported assessment results, and professional development to enhance practitioner skills. Incentives provide the motivational fuel for change. Reward alternatives include competency-based pay and pay for performance. States typically offer rewards to schools rather than individual teachers. Sanctions applied to low-performance schools include replacing the existing management team with state appointees, or reconstituting the schools by transferring practitioners or requiring them to reapply for their positions. At present, no conclusive data show that these sanctions produce any positive motivation toward change. Teachers seem to be motivated more by the small and unmeasurable signs of individual student progress than by monetary rewards. Done well, incentives can play a useful supporting role; done carelessly, they can create dissension among teachers when schools are encouraging them to collaborate. (Contains 11 references.) (RT)

Homeschooling has grown over the past several decades. It is estimated that 923,700 to 1,275,098 children will be homeschooled by the 2001-02 school year. Homeschooling families come from all major ethnic, cultural, and religious backgrounds and all income levels. Homeschooling parents are commonly active in their communities and join community and volunteer associations. Today, homeschooling is legal in all states. State laws generally require homeschooling parents to file basic information with a state or local education agency. More than half of the states require evaluation such as testing, portfolio evaluations, or teacher evaluation. Parents do not need teaching certificates. Mothers commonly play the dominant role in the children's education, though fathers usually pitch in. Local and state support groups offer advice and assistance. There is at least one state-level homeschooling association in every state. Popular resources include libraries, museums, colleges, parks departments, churches, local businesses, and schools. Available test data show that homeschoolers do well. For example, one study of 12,000 homeschooled children showed that they placed in the 62nd to 91st percentile of national norms. Disagreement exists, however, about whether homeschooling helps or hinders a child's social development. Public opinion, though mixed, is generally positive with regards to homeschooling. (Contains 13 references.) (RT)

Educators use informal theories and assumptions to guide their actions, yet often fail to evaluate these beliefs. This digest examines the nature and purpose of educational-indicator systems and discusses the design of report cards by which schools can inform the public of their performance. An indicator is any statistic that casts light on the conditions and performance of schools, some of which are teacher turnover, student mobility, and financial resources. Indicators play a central role in accountability systems by focusing attention on results, especially the school's performance on standards-driven assessments. Although indicators hold out the promise of improved decision-making, they can also be abused. Indiscriminate data collection, data misinterpretation, and overreliance on data can wreak havoc on a school's accountability system. Designing effective school report cards poses a considerable challenge because parents and taxpayers may have different ideas than do policymakers. The Annenberg Institute for School Reform has designed a six-part "inquiry cycle" that uses indicators effectively. Tracking and reporting selected indicators will satisfy minimum requirements of accountability, but significant improvement will come only when the data are used systematically and intelligently. (Contains 13 references.) (RT)

Educators use informal theories and assumptions to guide their actions, yet often fail to evaluate these beliefs. This ERIC Digest in Spanish examines the nature and purpose of educational-indicator systems and discusses the design of report cards by which schools can inform the public of their performance. An indicator is any statistic that casts light on the conditions and performance of schools, some of which are teacher turnover, student mobility, and financial resources. Indicators play a central role in accountability systems by focusing attention on results, especially the school's performance on standards-driven assessments. Although indicators hold out the promise of improved decision-making, they can also be abused. Indiscriminate data collection, data misinterpretation, and overreliance on data can wreak havoc on a school's accountability system. Designing effective school report cards poses a considerable challenge because parents and taxpayers may have different ideas than do policymakers. The Annenberg Institute for School Reform has designed a six-part "inquiry cycle" that uses indicators effectively. Tracking and reporting selected indicators will satisfy minimum requirements of accountability, but significant improvement will come only when the data are used systematically and intelligently. (Contains 13 references.) (RT)

To help new principals succeed, school districts are capitalizing on senior administrators' expertise by adding mentor programs to the practical training programs for beginning principals. This digest examines the nature of mentorships and discusses how they can prepare principals for the next stage of their careers. Although mentoring has existed for millennia, it is only in the last 30 years that mentor-protege relationships have received increasing academic and professional interest. Increasing evidence suggests that matching an intern to the appropriate school and to the right mentor are critical components of the intern's education. Some examples of principal-mentoring programs are Albuquerque Public Schools' Extra Support for Principals (ESP), programs at the Southern Regional Education Board's Leadership Academy, and Growing Our Own in Santa Cruz County, California. Challenges to mentor-protege relationships include artificially constructed relationships, and race and gender issues. Tools such as the Mentor Identification Instrument and the Haberman Urban Principal Selection Interview have been developed to help identify good mentor-mentee matches. Formal mentoring programs vary in duration from fewer than 165 hours to more than 632 hours of internship. Mentoring programs are also useful in preparing new principals to become mentors in their own right. (Contains 11 references.) (RT)

To help new principals succeed, school districts are capitalizing on senior administrators' expertise by adding mentor programs to the practical training programs for beginning principals. This ERIC Digest in Spanish examines the nature of mentorships and discusses how they can prepare principals for the next stage of their careers. Although mentoring has existed for millennia, it is only in the last 30 years that mentor-protege relationships have received increasing academic and professional interest. Increasing evidence suggests that matching an intern to the appropriate school and to the right mentor are critical components of the intern's education. Some examples of principal-mentoring programs are Albuquerque Public Schools' Extra Support for Principals (ESP), programs at the Southern Regional Education Board's Leadership Academy, and Growing Our Own in Santa Cruz County, California. Challenges to mentor-protege relationships include artificially constructed relationships, and race and gender issues. Tools such as the Mentor Identification Instrument and the Haberman Urban Principal Selection Interview have been developed to help identify good mentor-mentee matches. Formal mentoring programs vary in duration from fewer than 165 hours to more than 632 hours of internship. Mentoring programs are also useful in preparing new principals to become mentors in their own right. (Contains 11 references.) (RT)