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This research investigates sex roles and labor in ancient Etruscan society, comparing and contrasting the bioarchaeological profile of human remains of five females and two males from the sacred area of the 'monumental complex' (Civita, Tarquinia). Despite the small sample size, analyses of entheseal changes, spinal and appendicular osteoarthrosis, Schmorl's nodes, and dental wear reveal much higher frequencies of biomechanical stress markers compared to other coeval Etruscan sites as well as pre-Roman and Roman data. Both males and females exhibited evidence of repeated strenuous physical activity, but the degree of biomechanical stress in females was particularly striking, suggesting involvement in physically intensive tasks. The study also draws comparisons with Roman populations, highlighting the higher biomechanical stress among women living in the Etruscan society compared to Roman females. These findings challenge the assumption of strict sex divisions of labor in ancient societies, indicating that Etruscan women at Civita may have shared in physically demanding activities typically associated with men, such as agricultural labor, sports, or domestic production. While the sample is limited and precludes definitive conclusions, this study represents a rare bioarchaeological contribution to the study of Etruscan society, offering insight into their lived experiences. Moreover, it underscores the importance of valorizing this skeletal material to enrich our understanding of sex roles and labor in one of antiquity's most enigmatic civilizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper describes the discovery of two late Etruscan burials at Podere Cannicci (Civitella Paganico, GR) and their significance within the broader territory of this part of Etruria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is an obituary for the German archaeologist Prof. Dr. Otto-Herman Frey, who was particularly dedicated to the research of the Iron Age north of the Alps. He worked closely with Slovenian archaeologists and was involved in various projects, including the exploration of the Cvinger ring fort near Stična and the restoration of findings from the Kandija hills in Novo mesto. The article emphasizes the long-standing friendship and collaboration between Frey and Slovenian archaeologists such as Stane Gabrovec. Frey contributed to the research of Situla art and Celtic art, and investigated the connections between Etruscan and Celtic art. He received the highest award of the state of Hesse for his work. [Extracted from the article]

The analysis of traumatic injuries in human skeletal remains from archaeological contexts offers important challenges for the reconstruction of past populations’ behaviors. In this study, a sample of 303 buried skeletons retrieved from the Etruscan necropolis of Spina (Ferrara, Italy) and dated back to the 5th to the 3rd century BC, were macroscopically analyzed for traumatic injuries. The sample consisted of 38% males, 22% females, and 40% undetermined individuals. Subadults represented 25% of the entire sample. The aim of this study was to collect and describe new data on antemortem and perimortem injuries in the Spina Etruscans, bringing a new perspective to the understanding of social behaviors in this population. In the sample of Etruscans examined 16 individuals showed evidence of one injury and two individuals of two injuries. The analysis revealed 18 cases of antemortem trauma and 2 cases of perimortem trauma. No traumatic injuries were detected among subadults, while men and women presented different types of traumas: women were more prone to stress fractures involving the spine, whereas men were affected by antemortem and perimortem inflicted traumas, suggesting a division of labor and a major exposition of the latter to interpersonal violence. The reduced presence of sharp force traumas found exclusively in males (3 cases, 1.3% of the adult sample) is basically consistent with archaeological and historical data that described this site as a free port without an explicit history of violence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Virtual Archaeology Review is the property of Virtual Archaeology Review and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Romanitas: Revista de Estudos Greco-Latinas is the property of Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The spread of the alphabet in Italy occurred between the 7th and the 6th centuries BC, resulting in the appearance of texts written in so many different languages and in such limited territorial space that one can hardly observe another similar event (Venetic, Raetic, Etruscan, Picenian, Faliscan, Latin, Umbrian, Oscan, Greek, etc.). In this paper, we analyzed inscriptions produced by the Veneti, the ancient inhabitants of a region located between the Adriatic Sea and the Alps, which has provided mainly short sepulchral and votive texts. After a careful analysis, some so far poorly understood texts revealed the development of symbols to represent numbers and the measurement of time. These features are connected with the experience of the Etruscans and show characteristics shared with neighboring Celtic populations. The inscriptions also highlight a focus on the supernatural and the underworld. Cultural influences from the east, especially from Egypt, which represent a prominent moment in the evolution of Greece in the 7th century BC, have left traces in figurative culture and, quite unexpectedly, even in language. Rigorous transliterations and original interpretations of the analyzed inscriptions support the proposed results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Susceptibility to morbidity and mortality is increased in early life, yet proactive measures, such as breastfeeding and weaning practices, can be taken through specific investments from parents and wider society. The extent to which such biosocialcultural investment was achieved within 1st millennium BCE Etruscan society, of whom little written sources are available, is unkown. This research investigates life histories in non-adults and adults from Pontecagnano (southern Italy, 730–580 BCE) in order to track cross-sectional and longitudinal breastfeeding and weaning patterns and to characterize the diet more broadly. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of incrementally-sampled deciduous and permanent dentine (n = 15), bulk bone collagen (n = 38), and tooth enamel bioapatite (n = 21) reveal the diet was largely based on C3 staple crops with marginal contributions of animal protein. Millet was found to play a role for maternal diet and trajectories of breastfeeding and feeding for some infants and children at the site. The combination of multiple isotope systems and tissues demonstrates exclusive breastfeeding was pursued until 0.6 years, followed by progressive introduction of proteanocius supplementary foods during weaning that lasted between approximately 0.7 and 2.6 years. The combination of biochemical data with macroscopic skeletal lesions of infantile metabolic diseases and physiological stress markers showed high δ15Ndentine in the months prior to death consistent with the isotopic pattern of opposing covariance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The widespread metamorphic imagery of the ancients responded to a pattern of civilisation: metamorphosis was something that everyone could experience in the world and which, precisely because it was linked to something real, could be the subject of dreamlike fantasy. As an ‘everyday’ experience, metamorphosis also acquired its own everydayness in the dreamlike imagination. Our short note examines three dream narratives: the dream of Astiage in Erodotus, the metamorphic dreams of Artemidorus Daldianus, and finally the fourth dream of the Martyr Perpetua in her hagiography. In these dream narratives we find symbolism common to the oneiromantic tradition of the Ancient Near East and Pharaonic Egypt.

Copyright of Studia Norwidiana is the property of Towarzystwo Naukowe Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego Jana Pawla II and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The archaeological record is often founded on the dynamic relationship between visible and invisible. A third possible dynamic, due the ravishes of time, is the «no longer visible». These three forces operated in the Calvario cemetery, a Hellenistic and Roman funerary context within the Monterozzi necropolis of Tarquinia (Viterbo, Italy). Archaeological investigations of Calvario began in the 1950s, thanks to the «Ing. Carlo Maurilio Lerici Foundation». Excavations have revealed different occupational phases, from the Final Bronze Age settlement to the Hellenistic-Roman cemetery, which is composed by semi-subterranean structures. In the absence of paintings and distinctive features, «standardised» graves were excavated and numbered. However, architectural and archaeological data were never published and the tombs are now neither visible nor accessible. Fortunately, digital technology makes it possible to overcome the gap between the «no longer visible» and the documentary evidence, in order to reveal forgotten contexts. Tomb 1824 a monumental hypogeum with a central pillar, which was used from IV century BCE to II century CE, probably as a family tomb is an example. Through the process of archivistic analysis of cartographic sources, vectorial processing, structural and architectural analysis, using archive photos from the Lerici Foundation, it was possible to recreate a three-dimensional environment, that allowed for the rediscovery of the vanished context. An essential tool was the communicative methods of this process which integrated modern museological methods with social tools like Sketchfab portal and Google Earth. These tools can provide the viewer with the possibility of discovering and observing disappeared contexts and testimonies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The terracotta reliefs are a tradition taken by the Romans from the Etruscans and Greeks. In principle, a relief was a votive offer of burnt clay, painted, of small and medium size, having on one or more sides holes to be sometimes fixed on the walls. But there are examples of considerable size, which adorn the walls of temples and private homes. Among the most famous reliefs in the Greco-Roman world are those discovered at Lokroi Epizephyrioi, made in a local workshop and dedicated to chthonic deities (Hades and Persephone, and so on), In Dacia only 12 plates were discovered, all small in size. They are divided into two major types of representatives: religious and domestic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Materialist science does not see that consciousness is causal and fundamental. In contrast, as the body of nonlocal consciousness research has become more rigorous, more meticulous, what is notable about the criticism is its growing mediocrity. This paper discusses why the resistance to incorporating consciousness in science is occurring. It also discusses the history of how nonlocal consciousness was exiled from science in the first place. And why. In the pre-Christian world thinking about consciousness and its role in physical reality could not have been more mainstream. The idea of nonlocal consciousness and that all life is interconnected and interdependent, and that space-time itself arises from consciousness, not consciousness from space-time, is not a new idea. In the past based on a kind of empirical observational science nonlocal consciousness was so well accepted for millennia it was explicitly put to use in the service of the state for governmental planning. The Egyptians, the Greeks, the Etruscans, the Romans, the Maya, all these cultures and others have maintained institutions whose function was to create a cadre of what today we would call remote viewers, often boys and girls, whose task was to provide the kind of practical guidance one can get today from remote viewing. Oracles were honored. The origins of materialism are presented and discussed and properly placed in their relationship to the Roman Catholic Church. The history of how denialism developed is discussed, and the difference between skepticism and denialism is defined. The emergence process of a new paradigm incorporating non-physiologically based consciousness is described, and examined in Kuhnian terms. And, finally, the implications of this new paradigm are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we report on a noteworthy early Etruscan trench tomb of a young child, most likely a girl, found intact within the cemetery of San Simone at the San Giuliano necropolis (Viterbo Province). The richly appointed grave contained the remains of a toddler aged 2–3 years, inhumed with wealth befitting an elite adult woman. Typically, the tombs of infants and young children are thought to portray status ascribed to their kin group. The objects interred in the grave reflect the high status of her kinship group, as well as her family's aspirations for her and the social roles she was meant to have occupied if she had lived longer. Objects in the grave connect her to her ancestors and reveal her anticipated role in textile production and in facilitating and/or orchestrating politically important banquets, possibly even accompanied by sacrificial feasts. But this girl buried at San Giuliano may have been different in other ways as well. She likely looked different, probably having a cleft palate that may have led to her premature death. Some of the objects buried with her, particularly the amber pendant necklace, may have been meant to have curative or healing properties. Using an analysis of the construction of the grave, the osteological remains, and particularly the elaborate funerary assemblage, we explore this child's expected roles in early Etruscan society and show how her family represented their connections to a broad range of communities across central Italy and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This exciting new building phase is treated in Chapter 4, "Monumental Aspirations: Poggio Civitate's Archaic Phase" (97-145). At Poggio Civitate, "Archaic" is ca. 600 to ca. 525 B.C.E. This final phase of construction seems to crystalize elements from the Intermediate Phase into a monumental, unified complex. Moreover, Poggio Civitate has been an unusual and complex site from the very start of excavations in 1966. There is good evidence for communal banqueting at Poggio Civitate and such large gatherings could have taken place in the northern wing of the structure. [Extracted from the article]

New material to be inserted in the corpus of vases incudes L.'s ongoing catalog of attested Etrusco-Corinthian figured vases (527-552) and recently published references to the entries in Szilágyi's two catalogs (571-596). L.'s comments on the taphonomy, usage or symbolism of Etrusco-Corinthian vases should stimulate more scrutiny into social aspects of these vases, for instance phenomena such as placing two vases, especially I olpai i , in a tomb, one Corinthian and one Etrusco-Corinthian. The Tarquinian port of Gravisca has furnished many examples of Corinthian imports and Etrusco-Corinthian vases of the same shape, especially plates (315-321). [Extracted from the article]

With respect to the Piacenza Liver, Riva does not mention that some Etruscan deities were emphasized in certain regions of Etruria and minimally recognized in others. Riva's reflective, and at times reflexive, book is an interesting addition to other basic introductory texts dedicated to Etruscan society (e.g., C. Smith, I The Etruscans: A Very Short Introduction i [Oxford 2014]). For example, Riva considers the use of "Orientalizing" (64-5) to characterize the eighth-seventh centuries B.C.E. in Etruria. While Riva does not choose to mention the visual representation of the equine organs, she does connect the tomb's sarcophagus with other later alabaster sarcophagi from the fourth-third centuries B.C.E. Chapter 6 concludes with a brief illustration of the political dynamics at play throughout Etruria. [Extracted from the article]

This paper examines the inclusion of Etruscan demons such as Charun and Vanth in Homeric art, using the François Tomb as a case study. The combination of Greek and Etruscan figures is often described as a "patchwork" of influences. I argue that the "patchwork" approach is anachronistic and that fourth-century viewers would not have seen such a dichotomous opposition between Etruscan demons and Greek myths. Anthropological memory theory supplies a new framework for understanding the inclusion of Greek myths in the Etruscan pantheon. I argue that the François Tomb was the end product of a centuries-long process of forgetting: the Greek origin of the Homeric myths was no longer felt as acutely in the fourth century as when the two cultures first made contact. By the fourth century, the blending was not a calculated change or an attempt to show off foreign knowledge. It was a representation of the Etruscans' own cultural memory, adapted over three centuries of Greek contact to become a syncretic system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This article considers the international position of the Roman Republic during the first half of the 4th century B.C., from the Gallic invasion to the conclusion (or renewal) of the union treaty with the Latin League in 358 B.C. Rome’s relations with the Latin communities and neighboring tribes and states are analyzed. The ways used by it to establish and maintain its hegemony in the region of Central Italy are discussed: unleashing war, granting citizenship rights, and removing colonies. It is worth noting that the Romans were more inclined to choose war. Special attention is paid to the agreement of 358 B.C. that eventually formalized and enshrined the unequal position of Rome and the Latin communities. Inte­restingly, the ancient authors did not cite the text of the treaty, but the subsequent events show that Rome and the Latins either had entered into a new treaty or renewed the old one. The historiography speaks of a new agreement between them, and this agreement was concluded on more favorable terms for Rome. From the events that unfolded in the second half of the 4th century B.C., it becomes clear that the new conditions were the obligation to supply Rome with military contingents and the use of the resources of the Latin communities to support the Roman conquests.

Sebastiano Vassalli’s historical novel Un infinito numero (1999) is based on the myth of the lost wisdom and the secrets of the remote Etruscan civilization and shows effectively how literary imagination can attempt to ‘fill the gaps’ of historical science. The novel effectively portrays a problematic relationship with a hidden area of antiquity and the creative strategies that the novelist can put in place to imaginatively retrieve it. This article analyzes Vassalli’s unique perspective on the ancient and puts it in dialogue with other examples from Vassalli’s oeuvre (i. e. Terre selvagge, 2014), and with comparable case studies from Italian and British literature.

Games as a pastime are rarely represented in Etruria. Based on a few documents with scenes of playful activities, presumed or certain, this article proposes to compare them with the ancient sources and archaeological data. A passage of Book I of Herodotus is the starting point for a reflection on the representation of board games in Etruscan culture.

The article deals with the etymology of toponyms “Rome”, “Italy” and Etruscan toponyms. The author concludes that the modern toponymic model of Rome, its environs and the Etruscan region were formed in the Celtic-speaking environment. The meanings of toponyms reflect the geographical features of the area and the architectural features of fortified cities. The results of the study allow us to take a fresh look at the migration processes of the pre-Roman era on the Apennine Peninsula.

Copyright of Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni is the property of Editrice Morcelliana S.p.A. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper will address the iconographic and iconological analysis of the conflict between Heracles and the terrible Egyptian king Busiris according to the myth known by Etruscans. It deals with the recording contexts of images and the relationship with their material supports, using a research approach that has so far focused almost exclusively on the Greek area. Once a necessary comparison with the Hellenic world has been estab- lished, Etruscan and imported Greek images are examined, recognizing Etruria as the favoured destination of the latter. The diachronic analysis of the documentation has made it possible to identify an evolution in the meaning of the scenes, especially of Heracles' African opponents. In an initial phase of acquisition, the myth is functional to the social and political self-representation of its users, while in a more mature phase, it seems to be reinterpreted in a religious and funerary key. The implications of this interpretation are of crucial importance in framing future broader studies on the perception of the Negroid iconographic subject in Etruria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Atrio: Revista de Historia del Arte is the property of Atrio. Revista de Historia del Arte - Universidad Pablo de Olavide and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper discusses two kinds of research implemented to federate different disciplines and knowledge in support of archaeological research and the protection of the tangible and intangible heritage of ancient Tarquinia. The first part of the work examines the results obtained from the archaeological analysis, the concrete implications on the sustainability of ancient cultural landscapes and their possible transmission over time as an expression of the culture of a community. The second part of the work presents the reading and analysis of the ancient landscape and sites through chrono-stratigraphy, especially regarding two case studies in Tarquinia: the 'monumental complex' and the Ara della Regina sanctuary. The work focuses on the intangible aspects of the landscape as a result of archaeological research in the archaeoastronomical field. The orientation of the sacred structures and landscapes is presented herein regarding Etruria and the two case studies. The results shed light on the city's perception by the population, identifying it as an entity that held and sheltered every aspect of the community's life. The preliminary results of this study have made it possible to recognise aspects of significant historical and cultural value, which are the heterogeneous expression of a solid identity to be safeguarded and developed in a sustainable way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Etruscans, who dominated central Italy for much of the first half of the first millennium BC, are ripe for new analysis: the quantity of data for their culture is now substantial, wide ranging, and qualifies for large-scale comparison. In this paper, we survey how research in the last decade has affected our understanding of settlements, of changing models of the transfer of ideas, and of Etruscan religious behavior, among other topics. We place them into complex spatial, architectural, and economic narratives to show that the interplay between microhistorical case studies and macrohistorical trends has now achieved what ought to be a paradigmatic status. Despite the continuous flow of specialist publications and an industry of exhibitions, however, the Etruscans have not broken through into mainstream archaeological awareness. We argue that this could be achieved if future research becomes more thematic and agenda driven and embraces comparative study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bundrick's earlier interpretation of eye cups as apotropaic devices in the Etruscan funerary sphere is supported by the repurposing of such vases as lids for kraters containing cremated remains at Bisenzio and Foiano della Chiana. Bundrick's thorough methodology is corroborated by her careful notation of evidence that adds complexity to the argument that certain products or workshops were focused on the Etruscan market. Bundrick interprets Herakles's struggle with Triton - and Nereus on earlier Attic vases - as a metaphor from the Etruscan point of view for overcoming the challenging voyage to the Underworld. [Extracted from the article]

It is often maintained that Varro dispensed with the usual explanations for the Tities, Ramnes, and Luceres—the so-called Romulean tribes—and simply made all three Etruscan. This view is inconsistent with the evidence. Varro was clearly developing a case of his own about the foundation of Rome, the early citizen populace, and the granting of citizenship. All the evidence can be accounted for very easily, if it is supposed that he had the tribes created when Rome was founded, but named only later in Romulus' reign, following the war with the Sabines and the enrollment of new citizens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Pós: Revista do Programa de POS-Graduacao Em Artes - EBA/UFMG is the property of Pos - Programa de Pos-graduacao em Artes (PPG-Artes) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article re-examines the sole surviving fragment of Aeschylean elegy alongside the available contextual evidence in an attempt to enhance our currently very limited understanding of Aeschylus' elegiac output. The first section explores Theophrastus' citation of this fragment in the Historia Plantarum to demonstrate what we can learn about the original Aeschylean poem from its use within the later writer's discussion. The second section examines how the Italian focus of the fragment fits into a wider historical and literary discourse of interactions between Greeks and non-Greeks in the west. The third and concluding section builds on these findings to examine the possible Sicilian performance context of the original Aeschylean poem to which the fragment belongs. Ultimately the discussion demonstrates that the fragment is an important and hitherto underappreciated early witness of the development of influential cultural concepts regarding interactions between Greeks and non-Greeks in the west, and that the possibility that Aeschylus produced a poem relating to the victory of Hieron I of Syracuse over the Etruscans at Cumae in 474 b.c.e. is worth serious consideration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]