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Resumen El artículo tiene como objetivo contribuir al estudio de la relevancia de los derechos de exportación en el proceso económico argentino, a través de la discusión sobre los determinantes generales del gravamen y lo ocurrido en el período de la postconvertibilidad. Se recurre a abundante información, a fin de estimar la recaudación del impuesto, complementaria a la información oficial. En particular, la estimación obtenida posee un mayor nivel de desagregación. Además, se propone una clasificación alternativa de las actividades económicas sobre las que efectivamente recae el impuesto y se incorpora el efecto de los reintegros a las exportaciones. Entre los resultados, se sostiene que la relevancia de la recaudación vía este impuesto en el período mencionado se encuentra entre las mayores en términos históricos y fuertemente asociada a la renta de la tierra proveniente de la explotación de los recursos naturales. Abstract This article aims to contribute to the research concerning export taxes relevance in the Argentine economic process, based on the analysis on the general determinants of the tax and on the events that occurred during the period after the convertibility. A wide range of information is used in order to estimate tax collection, complementing the official information. In particular, the obtained estimation has a higher level of disaggregation. At the same time an alternative classification of the economic activities over which the tax actually impacts is proposed, and the effect of the refunds over exports is incorporated. Among the results, it is found that the relevance of the tax collection in the aforementioned period is one of the largest in historical terms and strongly associated with the ground rent due to exploitation of natural resources. Resumo O artigo procura-se contribuir com o estudo da relevância dos direitos de exportação no processo econômico argentino, começando por discutir os determinantes gerais do imposto e o que aconteceu no período chamado "Pos-Convertibilidad". Para isso, é utilizada uma importante quantidade de fontes de informação para fazer uma estimativa da cobrança do imposto, com o objetivo de complementar a informação oficial. Em particular, a estimativa obtida tem um maior nível de desagregação, enquanto se propõe uma classificação alternativa das atividades econômicas sobre as quais o imposto é cobrado. Além disso, o efeito dos reembolsos das exportações é incorporado. Entre os resultados obtidos encontra-se que a relevância da colheita deste imposto no período mencionado está entre as mais elevadas em termos históricos e fortemente associadas à renda da terra a partir da exploração dos recursos naturais.

This paper explores the extent to which market power considerations explain levels of export taxes. Market power is proxied by the inverse import demand elasticities faced by exporters. The paper first provides estimates of market power for exporting countries and products at the 6-digit level of the Harmonized System. It then finds a positive correlation between market power and export taxes. This result supports the theory that, when unconstrained in their trade policy choices, countries take their market power into account when setting their export taxes.

Argentina has a long record of taxing agricultural exports. In 2013, the European Commission started to impose antidumping duties on exports of Argentinean biodiesel. They were considered being dumped due to reduced export taxes compared to those applied to soybean oil exports. The objective of this paper is to analyze the economic consequences of these Argen-tinean differential taxes on the European biodiesel and related sectors. Thanks to an original model sim-ulating the world markets of main arable crops, we first analyze the results of an increase of the export tax on biodiesel only. We then simulate the conse-quences of a reduction of export taxes on soybean products. Finally, we assess the impacts of the overall Argentinean policy of differentiated taxation of agri-cultural exports. One main conclusion is that Europe-an biodiesel producers are relatively more penalized than biodiesel producers in other countries by the current Argentinean policy, due to a relatively greater production of rapeseed. US and Brazilian producers suffer from welfare losses in all scenarios due to the indirect effects on soybean markets. The welfare im-pacts on consumers and taxpayers are often opposite to the welfare impacts on producers, leading to small global welfare effects.

Argentina has a long record of taxing agricultural exports. In 2013, the European Commission started to impose antidumping duties on exports of Argentinean biodiesel. They were considered being dumped due to reduced export taxes compared to those applied to soybean oil exports. The objective of this paper is to analyze the economic consequences of these Argentinean differential taxes on the European biodiesel and related sectors. Thanks to an original model simulating the world markets of main arable crops, we first analyze the results of an increase of the export tax on biodiesel only. We then simulate the consequences of a reduction of export taxes on soybean products. Finally, we assess the impacts of the overall Argentinean policy of differentiated taxation of agricultural exports. One main conclusion is that European biodiesel producers are relatively more penalized than biodiesel producers in other countries by the current Argentinean policy, due to a relatively greater production of rapeseed. US and Brazilian producers suffer from welfare losses in all scenarios due to the indirect effects on soybean markets. The welfare impacts on consumers and taxpayers are often opposite to the welfare impacts on producers, leading to small global welfare effects.

Due to the poor wheat harvest in exporting countries of Eastern Europe in the second half of 2010, the price of wheat on the world market is constantly growing. Serbia was disposed of surplus after the harvest and used it for exporting into other markets. At the end of the year the possibility of introducing temporary export tariffs on wheat was announced, in order to prevent price increase in food, reduction of purchasing power and shortage of wheat on domestic market. The aim was to review the effects which would result from assuming the introduction of the proposed measures. The paper presents the movement of wheat prices on international and domestic markets, analyzes the economic effects of export restrictions and lists international treaties that Serbia had accepted, and which represent an obstacle to the introduction of such measures.

This paper studies the economic, poverty, and income inequality impacts of both world and domestic trade reform in Argentina, with a special focus on export taxes. Argentina offers an interesting case study as the only large agricultural exporter that has, at many points in its history, applied export taxes to several of its agricultural products. The paper combines results from a global economy-wide model (World Bank?s LINKAGE model), a national CGE model, and microsimulations. The results suggest that full liberalization of world trade (including subsidies and import taxes, but not export taxes), both for agricultural and non-agricultural goods, reduces poverty and inequality in Argentina. However, if only agricultural goods are included, indicators for poverty and inequality do not improve and even deteriorate somewhat. This is particularly the case if export taxes are eliminated.

This paper studies the economic, poverty, and income inequality impacts of both world and domestic trade reform in Argentina, with a special focus on export taxes. Argentina offers an interesting case study as the only large agricultural exporter that has, at many points in its history, applied export taxes to several of its agricultural products. The paper combines results from a global economy-wide model (World Bank's LINKAGE model), a national CGE model, and microsimulations. The results suggest that full liberalization of world trade (including subsidies and import taxes, but not export taxes), both for agricultural and non-agricultural goods, reduces poverty and inequality in Argentina. However, if only agricultural goods are included, indicators for poverty and inequality do not improve and even deteriorate somewhat. This is particularly the case if export taxes are eliminated., Facultad de Ciencias Económicas

How do global supply chain linkages modify countries' incentives to impose import protection? Are these linkages empirically important determinants of trade policy? To address these questions, this paper introduces supply chain linkages into a workhorse terms-of-trade model of trade policy with political economy. Theory predicts that discretionary final goods tariffs will be decreasing in the domestic content of foreign-produced final goods. Provided foreign political interests are not too strong, final goods tariffs will also be decreasing in the foreign content of domestically-produced final goods. The paper tests these predictions using newly assembled data on bilateral applied tariffs, temporary trade barriers, and value-added contents for 14 major economies over the 1995-2009 period. There is strong support for the empirical predictions of the model. The results imply that global supply chains matter for trade policy, both in principle and in practice.

Recent data show that the institutional content of preferential trade agreements has evolved over time. Although pre-1990s preferential trade agreements mostly focused on tariff liberalization, recent agreements increasingly contain deep provisions in diverse areas, such as intellectual property rights, investment, and standards. At the same time, there has been a remarkable increase in the internationalization of production through foreign direct investment and outsourcing. This paper employs the Antràs and Helpman (2008) model of contractual frictions and global sourcing to study how deep trade agreements affect the international organization of production. The paper constructs new measures of the depth of preferential trade agreements and of vertical foreign direct investment to test the theory. Consistent with the model, the analysis finds evidence that the depth of trade agreements is correlated with vertical foreign direct investment, and that this is driven by the provisions that improve the contractibility of inputs provided by suppliers, such as regulatory provisions. Because this implication of the model is specific to the so-called “property rights” theory of the multinational firm, the findings provide empirical support to this approach vis-à-vis alternative theories of firm boundaries.

This background paper provides information on the study of the Group of 20 (G-20) and challenges faced by low-income developing countries (LIDCs). The study analyzes LIDCs development challenges and how G-20 economic policies can be coordinated so they can contribute to creating an enabling environment for their development. The focus of the paper is the role that trade and investment policies of G-20 countries play in this context. The paper is composed of three parts 1) the characteristics of LIDCs integration in the world economy, 2) the evolution of G-20 policies that affect LIDCs integration, and 3) the potential for changes in the G-20 trade and investment policy landscape to benefit LIDCs.

The main message of this report is that if Kazakhstan wants to take advantage of global integration and diversification opportunities, the government needs to improve its trade policy framework, its management, and its regulations. It is also finalizing accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) while its trade strategy includes a number of free trade agreements to be negotiated. It is an active member of the Central Asia Region Economic Cooperation (CAREC). This report is composed of three policy notes that discuss how to improve the trade policy framework, management, and regulations: note one is on the trade policy framework and recommends joining the WTO on a tariff schedule that is more liberal than Russia’s; note two postulates that to benefit more fully from the WTO membership and future regional or bilateral agreements, the institutional framework for trade policy management will need a clearer strategic vision, better coordination within the government and with private sector, and enhanced human capacity; and note three suggests that for the private sector to benefit from global integration and diversification, the government should ease the burden of regulations that affect trade (non-tariff measures (NTMs)).

In response to the surges in world agricultural and food prices that have occurred since 2006, many countries imposed controls on their agricultural exports, using taxes, quotas, and complete export bans. Further, during the past few decades, many countries have maintained longstanding export taxes not only on agricultural goods, but also on forestry and fishery products, minerals, metals, and precious stones. This study examines the market effects of a conventional export tax, as well as three alternative policies that are less market distorting, and thereby less welfare diminishing: a subsidy to consumption, a tax on production, and a modification of a conventional export tax that allows additional exports after producers meet a sales requirement for their output. All three alternatives result in more exports of affected goods than the unmodified tax does. The increased exports will thereby benefit foreign consumers, and if the country is a large exporter of an affected good on the world market, the benefit is larger, because the additional exports will lower the good’s world purchase price. Increased global sales and lower prices will improve world food security and benefit the consuming poor of the world, especially if the affected product is a staple food such as wheat or rice. Policies that pursue such goals are consistent with U.S. efforts to improve world food security. However, the alternative policies are "second best" options because they are less effective at increasing both domestic and world economic welfare than the first best policy of abolishing the export tax and allowing free export.

This paper projects Indonesia's production and trade patterns to 2020 and 2030 in the course of global economic development under various growth and policy scenarios. We employ the GTAP model and Version 8.1 of the GTAP database, along with supplementary data from a range of sources to support projections of the global economy. The baseline projection assumes trade-related policies do not change in each region but that endowments and real GDP do change, at exogenously selected rates. This enables us to analyse how potential global changes may impact the Indonesian economy over this and the next decade. We then consider the impacts of three potential policy reforms by 2020: an increase in global rice exports, as might be associated with the opening of Myanmar; Indonesia's recently-imposed export taxes on unprocessed primary products; and implementation of Indonesia's new Food Law.

We build a model of cross-border pollution between two large open economies, one importing the polluting good and the other exporting it, and derive their non-cooperative trade and environmental tax policies. We show among other things, that (1) in response to a bilateral reduction in trade taxes by both countries, the former country's optimal policy is to lower its Nash emissions tax while the latter's is to raise it, and (2) in response to an increase in emissions tax rates by both countries, the former country's optimal reaction is to raise its Nash import tariff, while the latter's is to reduce its Nash export tax. That is, in the present context, freer trade leads the exporting country to adopt stricter while the importing country laxer environmental tax policies. © 2013 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. 58 563 578 563-578

Export taxes usage has recently risen. They are widely presumed to affect trade, but the lack of data has prevented a systematic evaluation of their trade effects. Based on a new dataset of tax rates at the product level, this paper estimates the distortionary trade effects of export taxes. The results, which are based on theory-consistent estimation of a structural gravity model, indicate that the elasticity of trade quantities to tax is -1.8 on average, rising to -5.5 for extractive sectors. The effects are driven by homogeneous goods. The results suggest that the burden of export taxes is shared by exporters and importers and that export taxes play a role in the rise of world prices.

This paper examines how conventional export taxes and quotas can be modified to make them less market-distorting, and thereby less welfare-diminishing. The modified policies achieve the same economic objectives of the tax or quota, such as reducing the domestic price of the exported good, increasing domestic purchases, and raising revenue, but also generate additional exports beyond the volume that the tax/quota alone would allow. Also, the policies do not involve any government subsidies to either producers or consumers. We examine two scenarios. The first is when a tax or quota is already in place, as in the case of longstanding export taxes that many countries maintain for exports of agricultural, fishery, and forestry products, minerals, and metals. The second scenario is when a measure is not yet in place but a country wishes to impose one, as in the case of short run agricultural export restrictions that countries have enacted in recent years to restrain increases in domestic food commodity prices. We also examine the outcome when the country does and does not have world market power in the exported good.

This paper describes a newly collected dataset on export tax rates, which provides comprehensive coverage for 20 countries, 2 time periods and all products at HS6 level. Export tax rates are based on national government documentation, including preferential provisions for partner countries. The data are organized in a harmonized and comparable format, including ad-valorem equivalents of specific taxes. The dataset can contribute to the empirical analysis of export taxes - an increasingly applied trade policy instrument, which merits further attention from academia and policy makers alike. Furthermore, the paper contains literature review and stylized facts highlighting various aspects of export taxes.

The Central America region is a small market. The region contains around 43 million inhabitants (0.6 percent of total world population) who generate around 0.25 percent of the world's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). While the region has successfully embarked on a regional integration agenda and has strong commercial links with the US, extra-regional trade-mainly with large fast-growing emerging economies-remains a challenge. Export performance is analyzed along three dimensions that, together, give a fairly comprehensive picture of competitiveness: 1) the composition, orientation and growth of the export basket; 2) the degree of export diversification across products and markets; and 3) the level of sophistication and quality of their main exports. This analysis allows exports dynamics at the different margins of trade (intensive, extensive, and quality) to be evaluated and individual countries' to be benchmarked with peers in the Central American region. The results of this report allow policy makers to identify key areas to explore in the overall discussion of export competitiveness in the Central American region. This paper relates to the literature on challenges and opportunities that trade liberalization can bring to the Central American region. Much of the recent literature focuses on the role of the free trade agreement negotiated by Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, with the US.

Tariff and non-tariff barriers are widespread as applied to agricultural trade. The theory of gains from trade considers the impacts of free trade relative to no trade and to non-tariff barriers, while the theory of agricultural policy generally places little weight on the international trading sector. However, it is necessary to combine agricultural policy with the international trading sector so that agricultural policy instruments such as price supports are considered together with barriers to trade such as tariffs. This is possible within the context of welfare economics when considering the costs and benefits of alternative agricultural and trade policies.