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The paper presents an experimental study conducted to evaluate the feasibility of using accelerometers as an indirect means to estimate water depths on road surfaces. It makes use of the vibration of the vehicle’s wheel arch due to water droplets projected by a tire rolling on a wet road surface. A trailer equipped with a wheel and towed by a van was used. The test setups to spread water on the road surface and before the test wheel, measure the water depth and visualize the water spray are described. The test program, conducted on a test track closed to the traffic, includes three surfaces and two speeds. Visualization of water flows by means of high-speed cameras makes it possible to choose a suitable location for the accelerometers. It turns out that signals provided by the accelerometers are affected by the trailer’s movement; a filtering method has been successfully developed to remove noises. Results show a tight relationship between the mean amplitude of accelerometric signals and actual water depths. Discussions are made in terms of effects of the vehicle speed and the road surface texture. Perspectives for using the developed system to improve passenger safety under autonomous driving conditions are presented.

This paper presents a laboratory test method to characterize the relationship between rolling resistance and macrotexture of road surfaces. Description of the testing (machine, samples, protocol) is provided. Results are comparable to those obtained by instrumented trailers on road surfaces with similar macrotexture. Effects of test speed and temperature are evaluated. Using an analytical model based on the energy dissipated by the rubber when it is deformed by the surface asperities, discussions are made on the importance of rubber hysteresis loss and surface enveloping.

This paper deals with the modeling of rolling resistance and the analysis of the effect of pavement texture. The Rolling Resistance Model (RRM) is a simplification of the no-slip rate of the Dynamic Friction Model (DFM) based on modeling tire/road contact and is intended to predict the tire/pavement friction at all slip rates. The experimental validation of this approach was performed using a machine simulating tires rolling on road surfaces. The tested pavement surfaces have a wide range of textures from smooth to macro-micro-rough, thus covering all the surfaces likely to be encountered on the roads. A comparison between the experimental rolling resistances and those predicted by the model shows a good correlation, with an R2 exceeding 0.8. A good correlation between the MPD (mean profile depth) of the surfaces and the rolling resistance is also shown. It is also noticed that a random distribution and pointed shape of the summits may also be an inconvenience concerning rolling resistance, thus leading to the conclusion that beyond the macrotexture, the positivity of the texture should also be taken into account. A possible simplification of the model by neglecting the damping part in the constitutive model of the rubber is also noted.

To investigate the relationship between tire rolling friction and road surface texture, a model based on the energy dissipated by a rubber block when it is deformed cyclically by road surface asperities is proposed. The effects of speed and temperature are considered using time-temperature superposition and the Williams-Landel-Ferry equations. The model is applied to texture profiles, measured using a laser profilometer, and filtered to simulate the envelopment of road surfaces by a tire, to estimate the dissipated energy and deduce the coefficient of rolling friction. The comparison between the model and the experiments, obtained by measurements performed on road samples in the laboratory, shows a fair correlation between the predicted and measured coefficients of rolling friction, this depending on the type of surface studied. Discussions are made to explain the gap between the model and the experiments and identify perspectives for future investigations.

This paper's objective is to evaluate the reversible phenomena that take place when asphalt materials are subjected to cyclic loads, i.e., self-heating and thixotropy. A strain sweep test was adapted to capture the stiffness variation of binders with the change in strain amplitude. The evolution of the internal temperature of the binder during the test was measured. Results show that the temperature can increase very significantly during cyclic testing and can account for a great part of all stiffness reduction captured during the test at different strain amplitudes. These results led to the conclusion that internal heating should be very important in asphalt mixtures as well. For that reason two types of time sweep tests were performed on the same mixture, with the introduction of rest periods in one of them long enough to let the inside temperature of the material lower after cycling. The results showed that the specimen that was allowed to cool down did not experience any loss of stiffness, while the specimen submitted to the conventional time sweep test failed in a few cycles. These results show the importance of the sequencing of loading and discourage the application of the Miner's law to estimate pavement life.

This paper studies the reduction in complex modulus when a bituminous binder is subjected to the fatigue test, along with the ability of this material to recover such a loss in modulus. It has been demonstrated in the literature that during a fatigue test, a rapid and reversible decrease of complex modulus can be observed at the beginning of the test. This reversible decrease is not correlated with fatigue and has been explained by the existence of reversible phenomena, such as thixotropy, self-heating, nonlinearity, etc. The aim of this work is to quantify the self-heating and determine its share in the reversible reduction of complex modulus under cyclic loading. A strain sweep test has been developed with different loading steps, followed by rest periods after each loading phase. The loading level increases with each step, and the loading phases allow observing the modulus decrease, while the rest periods are introduced to observe modulus recovery after each loading level. A complete recovery of modulus means that the modulus diminution is due to a reversible phenomenon however a partial recovery of modulus notifies the presence of nonreversible phenomenon (such as damage). In using this approach, the influence of loading level on both complex modulus decrease and recovery can be examined. In order to quantify self-heating during testing, the sample temperature is measured by embedding a thermocouple probe inside the sample during its manufacturing. To obtain the relationship between complex modulus and temperature, the complex modulus test results have been interpreted herein. A thermoviscoelastic numerical simulation was conducted to determine the temperature field in the material and quantify the variation in complex modulus with respect to self-heating. Results show a temperature variation of 11 °C inside the sample. A comparison between experimental and numerical results indicates that the numerical model perfectly predicts the variations in both temperature and complex modulus until a certain strain level, where the damage, thixotropy or other factors have not appeared yet. It is also observed that the reversible complex modulus decrease can be explained by self-heating.

This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published by Taylor & Francis Group in Road Materials and Pavement Design on 2017, available online at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14680629.2017.1305145. Asphalt concrete is a heterogeneous material containing a viscoelastic bituminous matrix and elastic aggregates. When testing asphalt materials under cyclic loading, various phenomena (so-called biasing effects) can decrease the modulus. This effect has been explained by an increase in the temperature of materials due to energy dissipation (self-heating), thixotropy and damage. The aim of this study is to analyse a uniaxial cyclic tension-compression test performed on bitumen and asphalt mixes, in modelling self-heating as one of the biasing effects. To quantify the self-heating and dissipated energy (as a heat source), a heterogeneous thermomechanical approach is introduced by separating the viscoelastic bituminous matrix from the elastic aggregates. According to this approach, various processes such as energy dissipation in the matrix due to viscoelastic properties, the thermal sensitivity of the matrix as well as its capacity to develop a heat source and diffuse heat through aggregates can all be studied. Local temperature variations are calculated by considering the heterogeneous dissipated energy field as a heat source. The complex modulus variation can then be calculated by taking into account both the temperature field and thermal sensitivity of the material. Simulation results show that as opposed to bitumen, in which 100% of complex modulus variations observed during a strain sweep test are due to self-heating, the results on asphalt mixes indicate that thixotropy varies with mechanical properties to a greater extent than self-heating. This fact is probably correlated with a higher strain level in thin bituminous matrix films, a higher load velocity in thin matrix films, material heterogeneity, and the 3D characteristic of matrix loading during the tension-compression test on asphalt mixes.

International audience; Asphalt concrete is a heterogeneous material containing a viscoelastic bituminous matrix and elastic aggregates. During fatigue testing in the laboratory, the material stiffness decreases as a result of increase in temperature due to self-heating. The objective of this study was to quantify such self-heating, during fatigue testing, as one of the biases affecting the fatigue life estimation of bituminous materials. A heterogeneous approach, which consists of separating the viscoelastic matrix from the elastic aggregates, has been adopted. According to a complex domain approach, a finite element simulation of a cyclic mechanical loading is proposed by taking into account the dissipated energy, internal thermal evolution, temperature dependence of the matrix stiffness and the heat transfer process. In considering a thermomechanical coupling, the numerical simulation results indicate that dissipated energy in the bituminous matrix is influenced by material heterogeneities. A higher dissipated energy can be observed in thin matrix films, where the strain level exceeds that of thicker films. An estimation of temperature evolution using dissipated energy as a heat source is in a good agreement with experimental results. Local temperature variations are dependent on the local heat source, the thermal properties of each phase and aggregate distribution.