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The UK’s decision to leave the EU and to regain control of its waters has enormous implications for the management of North East Atlantic Fisheries. The results derived from the implementation of new UK domestic regulations and international fisheries agreements will have a direct impact on the status of fish stocks and the socio-economic performance of fishing fleets. There is an opportunity and a responsibility for the UK, as an independent coastal state for the first time in over 40 years, to lead the way in achieving sustainable fisheries. The key objective of this report is to provide an evidence-based snapshot of the status of UK fish stocks and the UK fishing sector’s recent exploitation history of those stocks, by the time the UK abandons the EU fisheries policies. In doing so, the report provides a baseline for future evaluations of the UK’s progress and/or setbacks in sustainable fisheries management. The turnover of UK fisheries in 2019 was about £1 billion with the majority derived from over 24m vessels operating from Scotland. The majority of UK fisheries landings from the North East Atlantic in 2019 (618,000 t) came from UK waters (81% by live weight or around 500,000t and 87% by value). Around 27% of EU catches in the North East Atlantic were also typically taken from UK waters between 2012 and 2016, amounting to approximately 700,000 tonnes[1]. Stocks critical to UK fisheries include quota and non-quota species, with the latter not subject to EU Total Allowable Catches (TACs) – the primary management mechanism for North East Atlantic fisheries. Pelagic quota species such as mackerel and herring caught by over 10m vessels dominate UK landings by volume (54%). Non-quota shellfish such as scallops and crab are also key contributors (21%), with the remaining 25% comprised of demersal species. Smaller inshore vessels (10m and under) which dominate the UK fleet by number (74%), rely on non-quota species (shellfish comprise >80% of landings by volume and value). Of the 104 UK stocks audited, 82 of which are quota stocks shared mainly with the EU, 35.6% were healthy in terms of stock size (43.9% of shared stocks) relative to the MSY reference point Btrigger, whereas 20.2% were in a critical condition (15.9% of shared stocks). Data limitations mean the status of the remaining 44.2% (40.2% of shared stocks) cannot be determined, leaving them at greater risk of unsuitable management decisions. Analysis of the exploitation status revealed that 37.5% of the audited stocks were sustainably exploited prior to the UK leaving the EU (42.7% of the 82 shared stocks). However, 28.8% were being overfished (25.6% of the shared stocks) (F>FMSY), whilst another 33.6% were data limited and so cannot be adequately assessed (31.7% of shared stocks). In order that the implications of any management actions or policy decisions by the UK government following Brexit can be considered in greater depth, more detailed benchmarks for a selection of stocks are provided. Those stocks were selected according to their economic status (the ‘top 10’) or their performance: the 5 most sustainably and 5 most unsustainably fished in terms of stock size and fishing mortality rate. Separately, a more detailed examination of the recent exploitation and management history of all the cod stocks fished by the UK is provided given ongoing concerns over the status of this iconic fish species. Only 3 of the ‘top 10’ were healthy and sustainably exploited (North East Atlantic mackerel, North Sea haddock and West of Scotland Nephrops). Two of the stocks are overexploited and their biomass is below safe biological reference points as a result (North Sea cod, Southern North Sea edible crab). For the remaining stocks there is a mixed picture, including data limitations for North Sea anglerfish (monkfish) and scallops in the English Channel. The 5 best performing stocks are typically caught in relatively small quantities and are of relatively low value to the UK fishing industry, except for Western English Channel common sole which attracted the highest price per tonne of all the focus stocks. Zero catches have been advised for 3 of the 5 worst performing stocks – Irish Sea whiting and cod in the Celtic Sea and West of Scotland. The challenges of rebuilding depleted stocks are highlighted by a focus on the cod stocks. North Sea cod is once again subject to emergency management measures. With climate change also likely to be affecting cod’s resilience to fishing mortality, effective recovery plans are needed more urgently than ever. However, because the majority of the cod stocks are primarily caught as bycatch in valuable mixed fisheries, such measures will require a shift in fisheries management priorities. Lagging full policy implementation and persistent political decisions to set TACs above scientifically advised catch levels are still pending issues for fisheries management, and key contributing factors to the ongoing overfishing of North East Atlantic fish stocks, including Atlantic cod. For the ‘top 10’ and 5 worst performing stocks, the majority of TACs for the period 2016-2020 were set above levels advised by ICES. Conversely, the TACs for the top performing stocks were mainly set at, or commonly below, scientifically advised levels . The report investigates a number of other specific issues associated with UK fisheries and their management which have negative implications for the environment and sustainable fishing. Potential opportunities for improvements following the UK’s departure from the EU, as well as further risks, are highlighted. For example, the UK has the opportunity to demonstrate better practice by accommodating the ecological importance of species when implementing or influencing future management strategies, as highlighted by the implications of overfishing of sandeels for the North Sea fish, cetacean and seabird populations. In response to the findings of the UK fisheries audit, Oceana sets out policy recommendations for the UK Government. Overarching to these is ensuring sustainable fisheries is the primary goal of the UK’s fisheries policies and plans, in order to fulfil the objectives of the UK Fisheries Act and achieve the UK government’s aspiration to set ‘a gold standard for sustainable fishing around the world’, as well as meeting UK international biodiversity and sustainability commitments. [1] Data for the non-UK fleet in UK waters are not available for the period since 2016.

Cumulative effects assessments are a legal requirement in many jurisdictions and are key to informing marine policy. However, practice does not yet deliver fit-for-purpose assessments relative to sustainable development and environmental protection obligations. The complexity of cumulative effect questions, which are embedded in complex social-ecological systems, makes multiple, methodologically diverse assessments a necessity. Using the expansion of marine renewable energy developments in European Union waters as a case study, this paper explores how social-ecological systems thinking and cumulative effects assessment theory can combine to structure CEAs that better support the management and regulation of maritime activities at regional scales. A general perspective for cumulative effects assessment is proposed to remove ambiguity of intent and to orient assessments towards a common objective. Candidate principles for practice are presented for consideration. These principles are integrated into a stepped assessment approach that seeks to improve cumulative effects assessments of localised activities relative to the information needs of decision-makers implementing the ecosystem approach.

Proponents of marine renewable energy worldwide highlight that regulatory and consenting procedures are a significant barrier to the upscaling of infrastructure required to transform the energy generation sector. Uncertainties about the cumulative effects of marine renewable energy developments cause substantial delays during the consenting process, which are exacerbated by the lack of clarity about how to assess cumulative effects. These obstacles have contributed to perceptions that this essential emerging industry receives disproportionate scrutiny relative to established maritime activities. However, alongside legislated targets to reduce carbon emissions, there are legal obligations to protect, maintain and improve the condition of the marine environment. As the imperative to halt the decline in the condition of the environment increases, so expectations of cumulative impact assessments grow and the risk of consenting delays persists. To investigate how robust current cumulative impact assessment practise is, a novel evaluation framework was developed and applied to Environmental Statements of the world's largest offshore wind farms, currently in United Kingdom waters. The framework was designed to evaluate cumulative impact assessments relative to the information needs of decision-makers tasked with managing cumulative effects. We found that current practise does not meet those needs, that there is dissonance between science and practise, and problematic variability between assessments was observed. Straightforward recommendations for improved practise are provided, which if implemented may ease the perceived regulatory burden by clarifying practise. We also highlight additional steps that could enable project-led cumulative impact assessments to better support regional marine management. The results and recommendations will be of interest to countries worldwide where marine renewable energy is emerging alongside ecosystem-approach and marine spatial planning aspirations.

Assessing and managing the cumulative impacts of human activities on the environment remains a major challenge to sustainable development. This challenge is highlighted by the worldwide expansion of marine renewable energy developments (MREDs) in areas already subject to multiple activities and climate change. Cumulative effects assessments in theory provide decision makers with adequate information about how the environment will respond to the incremental effects of licensed activities and are a legal requirement in many nations. In practise, however, such assessments are beset by uncertainties resulting in substantial delays during the licensing process that reduce MRED investor confidence and limit progress towards meeting climate change targets. In light of these targets and ambitions to manage the marine environment sustainably, reducing the uncertainty surrounding MRED effects and cumulative effects assessment are timely and vital. This review investigates the origins and evolution of cumulative effects assessment to identify why the multitude of approaches and pertinent research have emerged, and discusses key considerations and challenges relevant to assessing the cumulative effects of MREDs and other activities on ecosystems. The review recommends a shift away from the current reliance on disparate environmental impact assessments and limited strategic environmental assessments, and a move towards establishing a common system of coordinated data and research relative to ecologically meaningful areas, focussed on the needs of decision makers tasked with protecting and conserving marine ecosystems and services.