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Data and information about products and services are now easily accessed via all types of Social Networking Sites (SNSs) including Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, WhatsApp, Blogs, Twitter and others. There is a mass of evidence that, in many countries including Saudi Arabia, SNSs are now important tools for making and managing key relationships among individuals and diverse societies. As the core of marketing theory is about making trusted and robust connections with customers for use in product and service development, SNSs in marketing have been seen to give a strategic and competitive edge, creating a new domain or industry known as Social Media Marketing (SMM). However, marketing managers still face the challenge of how to use such platforms in SMM campaigns to secure more profitable outcomes by influencing customers' behaviour and purchase intentions, and this is very much the case for Small and Medium Enterprise (SMEs). Saudi marketers in particular have not yet mastered the efficient use of these sites for marketing purposes. This study aims to develop an Integrated Social Media Marketing Model (ISMMM) to assess the impact of SMM practices on consumer behaviours and purchase intention within the context of Saudi Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). This development is to enable those types of businesses within the Saudi marketplace to obtain improved outcomes from their marketing initiatives using the SNSs. The study adopts an exploratory research design, quantitative data collection and analysis, and literature analysis research methodologies and deductive approach with a survey tool as the research strategy for data collection; thus, a data collection instrument was developed. The ISMMM Model was developed based on integration of different theories, of which the most significant were: Social Impact Theory (SIT); Consumer Culture Theory (CCT); and Social Capital Theory (SCT). Key constructs involved: Social Capital (Bonding and Bridging); Electronic Word-of-Mouth (EWOM); Friendof-a-Friend (FOAF); Online Advertisement; Brand Knowledge (Image, Trust, Loyalty and Awareness); Purchase Intension; Customer Behaviour; and Actual Purchase. The study revealed a high Goodness-of-Fit for the ISMMM Model and that ISMMM can identify the key factors to be considered by Saudi marketers for use of SNSs for marketing purposes. The findings showed Saudi users to have a positive perception of SNSs with regard to Social Capital Bonding and Bridging, EWOM and the FOAF, while perceptions of Online Advertisement were slightly positive. Saudis were also shown to have positive perceptions of Brand Image, Loyalty, Trust and Awareness, as well as Brand Knowledge, and Purchase Intention, Customer Behaviour and Actual Purchase. Other key conclusions were: that Social Capital Bonding and Bridging can explain the Social Capital construct; that Social Capital explained the EWOM and FOAF constructs; and that SMM practices explained Brand Knowledge. In addition, the SMM practices and Brand Knowledge can jointly explain the Purchase Intention; the Brand Knowledge and Purchase Intention can explain the Customer Behaviour; and Customer Behaviour can explain the Actual Purchase. The study's findings provided a number of key recommendations for marketers and marketing managers as well as for Saudi users of SNSs. The study recommends that marketing managers should treat marketing initiatives by SNSs as a real and strategic opportunity and as a transition paradigm for providing quality marketing services and reaching goals successfully. The study also recommends that they should identify the best and most appropriate SNSs for their businesses to use, that they should invest in SMM campaigns to enable highly effective and low-cost channels for quality customer service, and that they should focus on creating a Social Capital environment through bonding and connecting with Saudi users using SNSs. The study also recommended that marketers conduct frequent and quality reviews of the marketing channels, that they continue to use traditional marketing channels in parallel to the SMM, that they enhance their online advertisement channels, and that they strengthen relationships and ties with Saudi users of SNSs to understand their behaviours and intentions about making purchasing decisions, but with very high care as this may create vulnerabilities. The study recommends that Saudi users treat the SNS platforms in a friendly manner, showing respect for content posted by Saudi SMEs and other users on SNSs, that they use only the appropriate channels to purchase products online, and that they improve their awareness and knowledge about SNSs and SMM. The study also recommends that Saudi users communicate with SMEs for more feedback on SMM practices over SNSs, that they are aware of cyber risks and dangers threatening users, and that they inform the responsible parties about any risks. Many of the available marketing theories were developed and applied prior to the era of SNSs and SMM. Therefore, this work contributes by transforming the use of those older theories into the recent circumstances of technology adoption. The integration performed using different theories with validation in this work brings important theoretical and technological innovation and insights into the modern online marketing domain. This innovation can deal in a suitable way with the needs of the web 2.0 and cyberspace. The ISMMM Model developed and validated in this work extends the use of theories from different domains into technology oriented marketing domain to identify new factors with impact in the context of SMM and SNSs. Despite all theories used in this work for the development of ISMMM Model has been used individually in other studies, this work combines the factors defined by all theories to explain the extent to which those variables are significant in the area of SMM over SNSs, and to show the dynamic relationship among those variables to achieve marketing goals for the SMEs.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of the contextual embeddedness of entrepreneurship on female entrepreneurs. The contextual embeddedness of entrepreneurship in the social and geo-cultural environments has been consistently documented and societal perceived gender differences play a salient role in the development of female entrepreneurship. Moreover, there is an increase in emphasis on institutions as strong influencers of entrepreneurial engagement given their strong influence on the culture, beliefs and values of individuals and their views of society. The contribution that institutional theory brings to the analysis of the current knowledge of the state of entrepreneurship is even more significant in the case of female entrepreneurs who, according to the literature, are constantly disadvantaged and continually faced with significant obstacles due to their institutional setting. Also, investigating female entrepreneurship from a feminist perspective allows for attaining more profound insights by conducting the analysis both through the views of the female entrepreneurs as well as for them. Accordingly, this thesis combines an institutional gender-aware approach and a feminist perspective simultaneously to advance a comprehensive framework for the study of female entrepreneurship. In particular, the newly developed framework adopted for this thesis, the Institutional and Feminist Female Entrepreneurship Model (IFFEM) investigates the effects of institutional factors on female entrepreneurship at the meso-environment, macro-environment and motherhood levels and interprets their influence through a feminist standpoint allowing for more in-depth insights from the perspective of the female entrepreneurs. The investigation takes place in the Kingdom of Bahrain due to its standing as a representative Arab nation that lies in the heart of the Gulf Cooperation Council and the larger Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, as a response to the lack of research on female entrepreneurship in this region. The study is conducted using qualitative methodology via in-depth semi-structured interviews with a sample of 44 female entrepreneurs approached through a snowball sampling technique based on initial personal acquaintances. The sample is representative of locals and expats, owners of new startups, established enterprises, home-based businesses and electronic businesses. The findings highlight five main themes and several subthemes that influence female entrepreneurship at the meso-environment, macro-environment and motherhood levels. The main identified themes are, at the macro-environment 1) regulatory setting and 2) socio-economic conditions; at the meso-environment, 3) initiatives, and at the motherhood level, 4) motherhood ideals and 5) motherhood environs. In addition, the IFFEM model reveals additional interesting results that focus on the personal insights and perspectives of the female entrepreneurs, thereby confirming the appropriateness and relevance of the model as a tool for investigating female entrepreneurship. The thesis concludes with useful recommendations at the practical and theoretical levels for the study of female entrepreneurship.

This study aims to investigate the effect of uniform anti-money laundering policy adoption in Bahrain. The implementation of such a policy is required to improve transparency that may assist Bahrain Government, CBB and Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU) to compel investors to declare sources of money to banks voluntarily and Non-Banking Financial Companies(NBFCs) and report all violations of regulatory benchmarks to Compliance Directorate (CD) and FIU. The elevation of such transparent information exchange will deter launderers from placement, layering and integrating ill-gotten gains through the Bahraini financial institutions as well as constricting legitimisation of laundered proceeds and retarding funding of criminal activities. To examine the above, this study adopted a mixed method research design, comprising of in-depth interviews and secondary data. 31 employees from various banks and NBFCs were interviewed, and the secondary data was collected from banks, NBFCs, CD, FIU and the Public Prosecutor. These were analysed using content and correlation analysis to assess the validity of in-depth responses and secondary data. The findings of the study reveal the necessity to conform to the Basel guidelines and Financial Actions Task Force (FATF) 40 recommendations. The conformity to these equips banks and NBFCs to utilise Customer Due Diligence (CDD), Enhanced Due Diligence (EDD) and Risk-Based Due Diligence (RBDD). Their judicious application enables them to communicate Suspicious Activity Reporting (SAR) and Suspicious Transaction Reporting (STR), share authentic information, analyse and report all breaches and awareness to the CBB, FIU, Ministry of Interior and Public Prosecutor. They are required to search, detect, convict, confiscate illicit wealth and constrict unlawful activities, signalling the impact of the uniform policy. Their utilisation is needed to enable banks and NBFCs to discharge the role of gatekeepers and disrupt money-laundering process. Finally, the study justifies the necessity to establish the conceptual framework and adopt FATF fully to reform anti-money laundering governance. They allow CBB and FIU to collaborate with banks and NBFCs, improve countermeasures and apply these to protect the financial integrity of Bahrain. Focus on such key goals stimulates a review of customer identity and sources of fund assess the authenticity of funding sources declared by customers and initiate search and seizure of tainted money.

Unhealthy diet, low levels of physical activity, high levels of sedentary behaviour and sleep deprivation are important weight related behaviours that have contributed to the increased prevalence of adolescent obesity. Numerous interventions have been developed to improve weight-related behaviours but they are usually focused on the individual and they ignore the effects of social networks on these behaviours. Much of the research in obesity has explored the role of social networks in promoting health through social influence and selection. However, little research has examined how the structure of social networks and the position of the individuals in the network could condition behaviour association (regardless of the underlying mechanism being social influence or selection) in adolescent friendship networks. Examining social network structure, individual position in the network and how they interact with individual behaviour in friendship networks can assist in better understanding the development and persistence of weight-related behaviours in adolescent friendship networks and provides valuable insight on how to modify these behaviours. Hence, this study aims to examine the role of friendship network properties (density, popularity and centrality) on the association between individual's and friends' weight-related behaviours after reviewing the literature and analysing social network and behavioural survey data. Methods are drawn from a set of analytical tools known as 'Social Network Analysis', which uses friendship nomination data from a complete network (socio-metric), along with reported data on diet, physical activity, sedentary behaviour, and sleep deprivation to investigate how friendship network structure is moderating behaviour association between individuals and their friends in the network. Four schools in Kingdom of Bahrain participated in the study with a total of 673 adolescents between the ages of 11 and 15. Findings suggest that there are associations between adolescents and their friends' in multiple weight-related behaviours. There is also evidence for the moderating role of some network properties on these associations. Findings are gender specific, which has implications for gender-tailored interventions.

There are different criteria that affect active leadership styles that enhance the role of a principal as an Instructional Leadership. However, many principals lack such criteria where a strong principal considered as an Instructional Leadership. To become Instructional Leaders, principals must transform their practices from managerial to instructional. They need to exercise their leadership by exhibiting the leadership styles in their role and character, or their role will merely perform administrative duties that are akin to an administrative position. Furthermore, a school principal as a leader should play an important role in enhancing teachers' satisfaction. This study investigated the moderating effect of four leadership styles Directive, Supportive, Participative, and Achievement-oriented (D, S, P, A) on Instructional Leadership and teachers' outcomes (job satisfaction, job expectancies and acceptance of leader). The study used mixed methods, qualitative survey and quantitative focus group to develop a model based upon empirical data. The findings are based on a survey of 536 participants including teachers, principals and senior chiefs at various levels of primary, elementary and secondary schools across the Kingdom of Bahrain. The statistical and thematic analysis of the data shows that there is a direct and positive relationship between Instructional Leaderships and teacher's outcomes when moderated by the four leadership styles. The contribution of this study is the empirically tested relationships between Path Goal Theory and Instructional Leadership which shows that there are statistically significant relationships between D, S, P, A and the relationship between Instructional Leadership and the teacher's job satisfaction, job expectancy and acceptance of leader. Focus group finding shows that Leadership styles D, S, P, A transforms Instructional Leadership into a form that enhances the leadership role in Kingdom of Bahrain that Transactional Leadership influences Job expectancy, whilst Referent Power influences acceptance of leaders.