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Plans to extend rural electrification usually face budget constraints, so must prioritize the projects to define the implementation order. The project ranking must be defined with a clear procedure to justify the order among all stakeholders. Moreover, techno-economic and also social criteria must be considered to maximize positive impact and ensure long term sustainability. The current literature in rural electrification still has an economic bias and mainly offers independent designs for each community but no prioritized order to guide the institution promoting the program. This study presents a multicriteria decision-aid procedure to define a hierarchical order of the electrification of the communities throughout a rural region considering technical and social criteria. The proposed procedure starts with an assessment of the region, to determine the socio-economic context of the communities and the local energy resources, Next, the electrification project of each community is designed and assessed considering 7 technical and 7 social criteria. Then, a hierarchical order of electrification of the communities is calculated combining AHP method and discrete compromise programming to find a trade-off ranking involving all criteria. The procedure is applied to 8 communities of the municipality of Cintalapa-Chiapas (Mexico). Ranking results are discussed and complemented with a sensitivity analysis to robustly assist decision-making when implementing the program. The procedure can be adjusted to be used in other contexts., Peer Reviewed, Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::7 - Energia Assequible i No Contaminant::7.1 - Per a 2030, garantir l’accés universal a serveis d’energia assequibles, confiables i moderns, Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::7 - Energia Assequible i No Contaminant::7.2 - Per a 2030, augmentar substancialment el percentatge d’energia renovable en el con­junt de fonts d’energia, Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::7 - Energia Assequible i No Contaminant::7.3 - Per a 2030, duplicar la taxa mundial de millora de l’eficiència energètica, Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::7 - Energia Assequible i No Contaminant, Postprint (author's final draft)

Stand-alone systems based on renewable energies have proven suitable for the electrification of rural areas. Generally, the design stage of such systems only considers economic efficiency, through a single-objective optimization approach minimizing the system cost for a given demand. However, when designing a system, distinct solutions covering different demands and thus with different costs should be obtained in order to allow the users to select the one that best fits their needs and budget. In this regard, a conflict arises between the minimization of the project cost (in order to implement economically sustainable facilities) and the maximization of the energy/power supply. This work introduces a strategy based on Multi-objective Optimization (MO), aiming to produce a comprehensive set of configurations that represent the best trade-off between the total cost of the system and the energy and power supplied to consumers. The process developed here first identifies a set of non-dominated solutions and, if necessary, prunes this set through mechanisms based on Evolutionary MO in order to produce a manageable number of efficient solutions. The working parameters and internal operators of this computational process were finely tuned and designed through the numerical comparison of several pruning techniques. The computational experiments performed for two real rural communities from Peru demonstrate the relevance of the proposed approach, which is able to provide a reduced number of solutions showing distinct features regarding the three objectives (cost and energy/power supplied), among which decision-makers can select more easily the one that most suits their particular needs or preferences., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (author's final draft)

Rural areas in developing countries have the highest concentrations of unelectrified communities. There is a clear link between electricity consumption and the Human Development Index, as highlighted by the 7th Development Goal of the United Nations. Estimating the energy needs of the previously nonelectrified population is imprecise when designing rural electrification projects. Indeed, daily energy demand and peak power assessments are complex, since these values must be valid over the project’s lifetime, while tight budgets do not allow for the systems to be oversized. In order to assist project promoters, this study proposes a fuzzy mixed integer linear programming model (FMILP) for the design of wind–PV rural electrification systems including uncertainty in the demand requirements. Two different FMILP approaches were developed that maximized the minimum or the average satisfaction of the users. Next, the FMILP approaches were applied to six Latin American communities from three countries. Compared with the deterministic MILP (where the energy and peak power needs are considered as specific values), the FMILP results achieved a better balance between the project cost and the users’ satisfaction regarding the energy and peak power supplied. Regarding the two approaches, maximizing the users’ minimum satisfaction obtained globally better solutions., Postprint (published version)

Many countries are still facing a common hurdle: last-mile rural electrification. Great skill is required to face this challenge, which generally involves the most isolated, inaccessible and complex regions. Many Latin American countries have already undertaken universal access to energy schemes and have built an experience base that, if shared, can add a wealth of knowledge to facilitate the implementation of future initiatives. In this regard, this work evaluates the sustainability of the main electrification initiatives developed in Brazil and Venezuela, by performing an ex-post comparative multicriteria evaluation on 18 quantitative and qualitative social, institutional, economic, technical and managerial indicators. Eight discussion threads are drawn from the programs’ design and implementation strategies and outcomes. The main insights are: the suitability of renewable-based distributed energy resources for covering last-mile rural electrification; the effectiveness of a private context for the development of the technological market and the creation of policy instruments; and the effectiveness of a public context to implement a greater diversity of technological solutions focused on improving social well-being. The lessons learned aim to guide rural electrification promoters and decision makers in developing more sustainable and successful last-mile electrification initiatives., Peer Reviewed, Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::7 - Energia Assequible i No Contaminant, Postprint (published version)

Despite global progresses worldwide, many people living in rural areas still have no electricity. Autonomous generation systems based on renewable energy and microgrid distribution represent a viable alternative, but their design is complex. In a recent work, the design of electrification systems is tackled through a multi-objective optimization (MO) approach that simultaneously minimizes the system cost and maximizes the energy and power supplied to consumers. However, hundreds of non-dominated solutions may result from this MO process, hindering the subsequent task of decision-makers confused by too many alternative configurations. In this framework, this work proposes a computational tool based on e-dominance and cluster analysis to prune the set of non-dominated solutions to a manageable number. The numerical experiments highlight that, regardless the size of the community to be electrified, the proposed tool successfully determines a reduced number of diverse trade-off alternatives, among which decisionmakers are able to comprehensively select their preferred option., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (author's final draft)

Rural electrification should plan the multi-stage implementation of electrification systems considering different distribution options (national grid extension and decentralized off-grid systems) with different energy sources (photovoltaic, wind, diesel, etc.). Most of the existing planning assessment tools search for a static final design and only consider economical and technical criteria, although social and environmental issues have proven essential in ensuring long-term sustainability. In this context, the objective of this paper is to investigate and define how different actions of electricity extension in a region can be gradually organized to maximize the region’s overall satisfaction, and which technology options for electricity generation and distribution should be promoted on a regional scale according to economic, technical, socio-institutional and environmental criteria. The obtained solution defines, at each planning stage, to which communities should electricity access be extended and which configuration and sources are used in each community in order to maximize the total satisfaction of the region. This total satisfaction is calculated by means of multicriteria indices that evaluate the energy provided and the suitability of the chosen system designs according to stakeholders’ opinions (experts, promoters, users, among others). A mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model is developed to solve the regional multi-stage planning. The model is validated with a computational experiment of 540 randomly generated instances; the results highlight its efficiency. Finally, it is applied to solve a case study of 544 real non-electrified communities in Plateau State (Nigeria) calculating two electrification plans (with a more and less budget-constrained scenario) which are compared with the currently available one. The results show that the proposed new plans significantly increase the total satisfaction obtained in the electrification of the region. The co, Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

Access to electricity for the rural and indigenous population of Ecuador’s Amazon Region (RAE) is considered a critical issue by the national authorities. The RAE is an isolated zone with communities scattered throughout the rainforest, where the expansion of the national grid is not a viable option. Therefore, autonomous electrification systems based on solar energy constitute an important solution, allowing the development of indigenous populations. This work proposes a tool for the design of stand-alone rural electrification systems based on photovoltaic technologies, including both microgrid or individual supply configurations. This tool is formulated as a Mixed Integer Linear Programming model including economic, technical and social aspects. This approach is used to design electrification systems (equipment location and sizing, microgrid configurations) in three real communities of the RAE. The results highlight the benefits of the developed tool and provide guidelines regarding RAE’s electrification., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

Stand-alone electrification systems based on renewable energies are suitable for electrifying isolated rural communities. After some years of operation, their impact on the development of beneficiaries must be evaluated; in order to understand the strengths and weaknesses of each design option and to learn useful lessons for future projects. The literature lacks a unified study that compares the long-term impact on population of several projects combining different options for electricity generation (solar PV, wind and hydro) and distribution (microgrids and individual systems). In this context, this work performs a two-phase assessment of 9 electrification projects combining different systems and located in 6 rural Peruvian communities. First, a qualitative analysis is performed to monitor the progress experienced by the communities, considering previous evaluations carried out shortly after the projects’ implementation. Second, an in-depth analysis of the systems and the development of the communities is quantitatively performed through 28 indicators, evaluating 9 sustainability objectives organised into 4 dimensions: technical, social, economic and environmental. The results show that microgrid projects require and encourage community involvement to promote effective maintenance of the shared equipment. Conversely, individual systems can work for longer periods without as much regular maintenance, but still need an efficient management model to raise funds for repairs. Also, hydro is confirmed as providing continuous and high-quality supply, while solar and wind options allow more flexible designs. In all cases, a well-planned management model is essential for reducing the default rate, organizing effective maintenance and allowing the sustainable development of the community., Peer Reviewed, Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::7 - Energia Assequible i No Contaminant::7.1 - Per a 2030, garantir l’accés universal a serveis d’energia assequibles, confiables i moderns, Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::7 - Energia Assequible i No Contaminant::7.2 - Per a 2030, augmentar substancialment el percentatge d’energia renovable en el con­junt de fonts d’energia, Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::7 - Energia Assequible i No Contaminant::7.a - Per a 2030, augmentar la cooperació internacional per tal de facilitar l’accés a la investigació i a les tecnolo­gies energètiques no contaminants, incloses les fonts d’energia renovables, l’eficiència energètica i les tecnologies de combustibles fòssils avançades i menys contaminants, i promoure la inversió en infraestructures energètiques i tecnologies d’energia no contaminant, Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::7 - Energia Assequible i No Contaminant, Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::7 - Energia Assequible i No Contaminant::7.b - Per a 2030, ampliar la infraestructura i millorar la tecnologia per tal d’oferir serveis d’energia moderns i sos­tenibles per a tots els països en desenvolupament, en particular els països menys avançats, els petits estats insulars en desenvolupament i els països en desenvolupament sense litoral, d’acord amb els programes de suport respectius, Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::10 - Reducció de les Desigualtats, Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::10 - Reducció de les Desigualtats::10.2 - Per a 2030, potenciar i promoure la inclusió social, econòmica i política de totes les persones, independentment de l’edat, sexe, discapacitat, raça, ètnia, origen, religió, situació econòmica o altra condició, Postprint (author's final draft)

In the last ten years, there has been a progressive improvement in rural electrification indexes in developing countries, and renewable energies are progressively being integrated into electrification programs. In Cuba, the government has set a target of 700 MW in solar photovoltaic energy by 2030, including rural electrification and off-grid systems. Within this framework, 10,000 modular systems of 300 Wp are being installed in isolated communities. Nowadays, previously diesel-electrified settlements are migrating into renewable energy technologies projects in rural Cuba. The objective of this research is to evaluate the sustainability of these changes in order to identify the implications for other developing countries, taking four different dimensions into account: environmental, technical, socioeconomic, and institutional. For this purpose, the rural communities of Yaguá (diesel-based) and Río Abajo (solar-based) in the province of Sancti Spiritus are visited and studied. Results show that the institutional dimension of sustainability is positive thanks to improvements in energy security and promotion of the Cuban national plan goals. Moreover, results confirm that the energy transition from diesel-based to solar PV is environmentally sustainable in Cuba, but improvements are still necessary in the power capacity of solar modules to strengthen the socioeconomic and technical dimensions., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

Currently, around 1.1 billion people lack access to electricity, mainly in developing countries. Solar photovoltaic systems can provide electricity, but the design is complex, having to size and site the equipment. Besides, since forecasting consumption habits for newly electrified populations is complex, the estimation of the electricity needs is uncertain. This work addresses, for the first time, demand uncertainty to assist promoters in designing electricity access projects, simultaneously solving the sizing and siting problems, using fuzzy logic. In particular, a mathematical model is proposed, introducing uncertainty through five modelling approaches with different fuzzy logic assumptions: three based on the literature and two novel ones according to the conflicting problem nature (project cost minimisation vs electricity supply maximisation). The five approaches are compared and the new ones obtain solutions achieving a higher satisfaction regarding the cost and electricity supply. Then, the most efficient approach is applied in two Peruvian communities, comparing the solutions with those obtained without uncertainty. The results of the proposal show a better balance between the project cost and the demand supplied. Hence, the proposal can help promoters in developing countries to better design electricity access projects where the demand estimation is complex., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (author's final draft)

Electrification with micro-grids is receiving increasing attention to electrify rural areas in developing countries. However, determining the best local supply solution is a complex problem that requires considering different generation technologies (i.e. solar PV, wind or diesel) and different system configurations (off-grid or on-grid). Most existing decision aid tools to assess this design only consider economical and technical issues in a single optimization process. However, social and environmental considerations have been proven key issues to ensure long-term sustainability of the projects. In this context, the objective of this work is to develop a multicriteria procedure to allow comparing electrification designs with on-grid or isolated micro-grids and different tech-nologies considering multiple aspects. This multicriteria procedure is integrated in a two-phased methodology to assist the design of the system to electrification promoters in a structured process. First, different electrification alternatives are generated with an open-source techno-economic optimization model; next, these alternatives are evaluated and ranked with the multicriteria procedure, which considers 12 criteria representing economic, technical, socio-institutional and environmental aspects. The whole design methodology is validated with a real case study of 26 population settlements in Plateau State, Nigeria. Experts in rural electrification within the Nigerian context have been consulted to weight the criteria and particularize their evaluation for the specific case study. Results show that solar PV technology based systems are the most suitable electrification designs for communities in Nigeria, while grid connection feasibility depends on the size of the community and the distance to the closest national grid consumption point., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (author's final draft)

On-site technology performance evaluations are needed in tropical regions with extreme climatic conditions in order to reinforce electricity access programs based on renewable energy technologies (RET), particularly off-grid small wind technologies (SWT). This research aims to evaluate the technical performance and end-users’ acceptance of two SWT projects in Venezuelan communities located at different altitudes and with different weather conditions: a hot desert climate on the Caribbean coast and dry-winter climate in the Andean mountains. The technical performance is assessed through computer simulations to analyze the electricity demand and the wind resource. End-users’ acceptance is studied from in situ surveys and semi-structured interviews with all beneficiaries. Results show that the flat areas on the north coast have a low wind variability and high wind speeds, while in the mountainous areas the implementation of SWT is limited by the orography’s impact on wind variability. However, the social acceptance of SWT in both communities remains high given the existing relationship between load and production variations., This research was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (project RTI2018-097962-B-I00) and co-financed by Center for Cooperation Development (CCD) of the Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya e BarcelonaTech (UPC). The authors are very grateful to the Serra Hunter fellowship program of the Generalitat de Catalunya. The work has been possible thanks to the technical collaboration of engineers Angel Lopez V., Leonardo López, G. from PDVSA (Maracaibo, Zulia) and the logistics support of Jack Marquez from PDVSA Industrial (Lagunillas, Mérida). The cooperation of the people from La Macolla (Falcon) and Los Conejos (Mérida) has been extremely important for data collection., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (author's final draft)

Rural electrification has often been promoted to improve women's access to education. However, no studies have been conducted to measure the actual impact of electrification on equitable access to education, qualitatively and quantitatively. This is particularly true when studying rural and indigenous communities in developing countries. The objective of this study is to comprehensively evaluate the impact of electrification on schooling for men and women in La Guajira (Venezuela). Their traditional indigenous rural communities were recently electrified with Renewable Energy Technologies (RET). The study focuses on eight communities that have never had electricity and whose location far from urban settlements limits other social relationships. During a week of total immersion in the fieldwork, the impact on 285 men and 273 women was analyzed through 43 household surveys. The results show that access to primary, secondary, and higher education has increased significantly thanks to coordinated education and electricity policies. School offers similar opportunities for both genders, but a higher percentage of indigenous women take advantage of the opportunity to study beyond the primary level., This research was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation under the project title: “Optimization of Micro networks with Renewable Energies under Uncertainty and Future Network Integration” (OMER-IFIR), RTI2018-097962-B-I00. This research was co-financed by Centre for Cooperation Development (CCD) of the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya-Barcelona TECH (UPC) under the project title “Development of tools for the evaluation of energy projects”, 2019-B014. This work has been possible thanks to the kind collaboration of the Wayuu people from the Venezuelan Guajira and Fundelec (Venezuela) engineers and technicians., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (author's final draft)

Isolated electrification systems based on renewable energy are a suitable option for providing many rural communities in developing countries with access to electricity. In particular, the design of wind-photovoltaic systems that combine stand-alone and micro-grid systems has proved an efficient but challenging optimization problem. Decision support tools and solution procedures have been proposed in the literature, most of them focused on techno-economic aspects. However, social aspects related to the management of the systems are a key issue for users’ satisfaction and project sustainability. Only one procedure based on mixed integer linear programming takes the management aspects into account, but excessive computing time may be required or no solutions may be found for non-small communities. Thus, a fast procedure is proposed. The validation is carried out by solving 640 instances, randomly generated from real project characteristics. Our procedure always finds a feasible solution in less than 7 s on average; and even for instances with hundreds of possible locations for equipment, the solutions are found in less than 1 min. Moreover, it finds cheaper solutions than those in the literature. Thus, the procedure represents a very efficient process for optimizing the design of electrification projects considering the technical and management constraints., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (author's final draft)

[ES] El presente Trabajo Final de Máster (TFM) se emmarca en el ámbito de proyectos de Cooperación al Desarrollo para promover el acceso a la electricidad universal. Consiste en el diseño de una planta híbrida solar-hidráulica para abastecer de electricidad a una comunidad rural situada al norte de Ghana, actualmente aislada de la red eléctrica. La instalación está diseñada para cubrir las necesidades eléctricas básicas de la comunidad, incluyendo viviendas, usos productivos, iluminación pública y bombeo de agua. En primer lugar se evalúan los recursos energéticos presentes en la zona. Para el caso de la instalación hidráulica, se realiza un estudio sobre el aprovechamiento de un embalse situado al lado de la comunidad. Posteriormente se dimensiona la planta híbrida i la red eléctrica propuestas. La planta se diseña de tal manera que permite la fácil escalabilidad o incluso la posibilidad de ser replicada en la misma zona, pudiendo servir como base para la electrificación de otras de las comunidades cercanas. Por último se realiza un análisis de la viabilidad del proyecto, se hace una evaluación del impacto ambiental y para terminar una reflexión sobre los beneficios que el presente proyecto aportaría a dicha comunidad, [CA] El present Treball Final de Màster (TFM) s’emmarca en l’àmbit de projectes de Cooperació al Desenvolupament per promoure l’accés universal a l’electricitat. Consisteix en el disseny d’una planta híbrida solar-hidràulica per abastir d’electricitat a una comunitat rural situada al nord de Ghana la qual es troba actualment aïllada de la xarxa elèctrica. La instal·lació està dissenyada per a cobrir les necessitats d’electricitat bàsiques de la comunitat incloent habitatges, usos productius, il·luminació pública i bombeig d’aigua. En primer lloc s’avaluen el recursos energètics presents en la zona. Per al cas de la instal·lació hidràulica, es durà a terme un estudi sobre l’aprofitament d’un embassament pròxim, actualment utilitzat per al regadiu. Posteriorment es dimensiona la planta híbrida la xarxa elèctrica proposades. La planta és dissenyada de tal manera que permet la fàcil escalabilitat i inclús la possibilitat de ser replicada, podent servir com a base per a l’electrificació de les comunitats pròximes. Per últim es realitza un anàlisis de la viabilitat del projecte, es fa una avaluació de l’impacte ambiental i per finalitzar una reflexió sobre els beneficis que el present projecte proporcionaria a la comunitat., [EN] The present Master’s Thesis is framed within the context of development cooperation, in particular with regard of universal access to electricity. It consists on a design of a hybrid hydro-solar power plant that will provide electricity for a rural community located in the north of Ghana which is currently off the grid. It is designed to cover the basic electricity needs of the community, including household consumption, public lighting, productive use and water pumping. In the first place, energetic resources are evaluated. In the case of the hydraulic installation, a study of the nearest reservoir is carried out in order to determine its potential. Subsequently power plant and electric grid is dimensioned. The plant is designed in a way that makes easy its scalability or even its replicability in the same area, so that it could serve as a basis for other communities’ electrification. Finally, a feasibility analysis is carried out, also an assessment of environmental impact and in the end a short reflexion about the possible benefits the project will provide to the community.

Aquest treball realitza una avaluació de projectes d’electrificació rural amb energies renovables. Es disposa d’enquestes respostes per usuaris i tècnics de 10 projectes diferents d’una regió concreta del Perú, de les quals es vol treure informació útil. Per fer això, primerament cal fer una breu explicació de la idea general dels projectes. Es van implementar tres tipus de sistemes segons l’energia renovable a partir de la qual generen electricitat, la qual pot ser distribuïda o no a través d’una microxarxa. També es farà una descripció sobre la localització dels projectes al Perú. Després s’explicarà com són les enquestes d’on s’ha tret la informació. N’hi ha de dos tipus segons la informació que recullen i aquesta es completa amb la dels diagnòstics socioeconòmics de les comunitats. Per dur a terme l’avaluació és necessària una documentació prèvia, seguida del tractament de les dades de les enquestes, que inclou la digitalització d’aquestes. A continuació s’explica la metodologia d’anàlisi utilitzada: l’avaluació multicriteri. Aquesta consisteix en la creació d’uns indicadors per tal de visualitzar i comparar més fàcilment els aspectes que es volen estudiar. El següent pas es dur a terme l’estudi de les dades pròpiament dit. Per tal cosa es fa primerament una avaluació individual per projecte i després una comparació per àmbits d’estudi: tecnològic, social, econòmic i medi-ambiental. Per últim, es recullen les idees extretes de l’anàlisi, que resumeixen els resultats i són propostes de millora per presents i futurs projectes del mateix estil. Aquestes propostes van dirigides tant pel funcionament dels sistemes en si com pels futurs anàlisis de dades com aquest treball.

Actualment hi ha més de 1000 milions de persones al món que no disposen d’accés a l’energia elèctrica. La majoria d’aquestes es troben en els països en vies de desenvolupament, i especialment encomunitats enles zones rurals. Prosperar sense electricitat és impossible, així que cal treballar per revertiraquesta dada.Un grup de recerca de la UPC està realitzant un projecteper l’electrificació de zones aïllades a l’Amèrica Llatina.Han duta termeuna metodologiaper a electrificarpoblacionson no arriba la xarxa tradicional,combinant el subministrament elèctric individual amb les microxarxes, utilitzantenergia eòlica i solar i teninten compte les preferènciesde l’usuari.La metodologia es pot dividir en 2etapes. La primera consisteix en fer unes avaluacions prèvies de la zona des dels punts de vista socioeconòmic, energètic i tècnic. La segona representa el propi disseny, i es divideix en 3 nivells, en cadascun dels quals s’estudia la influència d’algun factor sobre el cost, i en els que l’usuari pot intervenir en funció de les seves preferències. Posteriorment, s’ha realitzatun programari informàtic per realitzar aquesta metodologia. L’objectiu principal del TFG és el de validar aquest programa informàtic, comprovar que el procediment que aquest realitza és el que hauria de ser i que la seva interfície funciona correctament.Per assolir aquest objectiu, primer s’haurà de dur a terme un procés de familiarització amb el programa, a base d’interactuar-hi i anar fent proves. Posteriorment, es realitzarà una experimentació d’un cas d’una població que serveixi com a exemple il·lustratiu i com a validaciódel correcte funcionament del programa. Finalment, es realitzarà un manual d’usuari per tal que qualsevol persona que hi estigui interessada pugui ser capaç d’utilitzar el programa.

In 2016, 1,100 million people lack access to electricity, mainly in developing countries in Africa, Asia and South America. In these countries, there is a large potential for hydroelectric production through off-grid microgrids, although not fully exploited. This work assesses the long-term sustainability of off-grid microhydro projects operating in rural indigenous communities. More specifically, four sustainability dimensions are analyzed: environmental, technical, socioeconomic and institutional, and specific indicators are proposed for each one. In particular, 6 micro-hydroelectric power plants in southern Venezuela are used as case studies. The data gathering includes surveys, technical visits and interviews with technicians, engineers and beneficiaries. Results show that the institutional dimension and, in particular, alignment between involved institutions has been fundamental for the long-term sustainability. Indeed, appropriate institutional alignment is the key to strengthening the impacts on: (i) the environmental dimension, minimizing emissions and impacts on local ecosystems; (ii) the technical dimension, improving adequacy and reliability of technologies; and (iii) the socioeconomic dimension, making efficient use of electricity to enhance education, health and productivity. Lessons learned and conclusions of this research can significantly contribute to improve future projects, in particular to the 22 included in the electrification plans of Venezuela in coming years., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (author's final draft)

The design of wind-photovoltaic stand-alone electrification projects that combine individual systems and microgrids is complex and requires from support tools. In this paper, a multicriteria procedure is presented in detail, which aims to assist project developers in such a design. More specifically, the procedure has been developed under a four-part structure, using support tools and expert consultations to enhance practicality into the rural context of developing countries. First, from a large amount of criteria, a reduced and easy to handle set is chosen, representing the main characteristics to be assessed in rural electrification projects. Second, two iterative processes, one based on the Analytical Hierarchy Process and one based on a typical 1–10 assessment, are tested to assign weights to the criteria, reflecting end-user preferences. Third, some indicators are proposed to evaluate the accomplishment of each solution regarding each criterion, in an objective manner. Fourth, considering the weights and evaluations, the solutions are ranked, using the compromise programming technique, thus selecting the best one/s. The whole procedure is illustrated by designing the electrification project of a real community in the Andean highlands. In short, this paper provides insights about the suitable decision-making process for the design of wind-PV electrification systems and, in addition, shows how different multicriteria techniques are applied to a very local context in rural, remote and very poor areas of developing countries., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (author's final draft)

This project aims to design an off-grid electrical installation based on renewable sources that can successfully solve the energy requirements of Can Carbassa, a rural home in the Alt Empordà. To do so the project is divided into four main chapters. In the first chapter the residence is described, along with its geographical location and climate. In the following chapter off-grid electrical installations are studied from a theoretical point of view, looking at the components that make up the system and what role they play in it, as well as the different technological solutions available on the market today. In the third chapter the current electrical installation is analysed to determine the current consumption and production and determining the weak points of the system. The conclusions of this analysis will be used in the following chapter to design the new installation, sizing all the components and defining the connections between them.

The aim of this study is to develop an algorithm for ensuring optimal operation of isolated microgrids. The generic microgrid considered consists of a set of distributed controllable generators integrated to a distribution network which give electrical supply in a local area. The algorithm is proposed to operate AC microgrids constituted by a photovoltaic power plant, synchronous diesel generators, energy storage capacity and loads. The optimization algorithm, based on linear programming, maximizes renewable power generation, minimizes diesel consumption and ensures an appropriate management of the batteries without compromising the frequency stability of the system. The energy management generates a day-ahead schedule and setpoints for the distributed energy resources and the energy storage system. © 2017 IEEE., Postprint (published version)

Davant la manca d’accés a l’energia elèctrica de la població indígena de la Regió Amazònica de l’Equador (RAE) i les conseqüents desigualtat existents entre el medi rural i l’urbà, l’actual Ministeri d’Electricitat i Energies Renovables (MEER) del país es planteja l’electrificació d’aquesta regió. La RAE és una regió rural aïllada amb nuclis de població dispersos per la selva, on l’extensió de la xarxa elèctrica és inviable. Així, els sistemes d’electrificació autònoms fotovoltaics es presenten com una solució viable amb fonts renovables, que a més permeten el desenvolupament endogen de la població indígena. L’objectiu general d’aquest treball és desenvolupar una eina de disseny dels sistemes d’electrificació rural autònoms amb tecnologia fotovoltaica (configuracions en micro-xarxa o sistemes individuals) que faciliti i afavoreixi el procés d’electrificació de la RAE. L’eina desenvolupada és un model matemàtic de programació lineal entera i mixta, el qual es defineix a partir d’un estudi previ dels condicionants de disseny a tenir en compte, incloent aspectes tècnics, econòmics, socials i mediambientals. Aquesta identificació dels condicionants ha estat possible gràcies al treball realitzat a terreny per part de l’autora, en el marc d’un projecte de cooperació amb Enginyeria Sense Fronteres i gràcies al suport del Centre de Cooperació per al Desenvolupament de la Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (CCD-UPC). Després de desenvolupar l’eina, es realitza el disseny dels sistemes d’electrificació autònoms fotovoltaics de tres comunitats sàpares de la RAE (Conambo, Suraka i Santa Rosa). Els resultats mostren que la millor solució és una combinació de micro-xarxes per a les agrupacions de punts i sistemes individuals per als punts més allunyats. Tanmateix, les solucions obtingudes amb el model matemàtic defineixen la mida i la localització de tots els equips a instal·lar. Així, es conclou que l’eina desenvolupada és útil i vàlida per millorar i optimitzar el procés de d

En todo el mundo existen cerca de 1.200 millones de personas que no tienen el acceso a la electricidad, principalmente ubicadas en zonas remotas, dispersas y con baja demanda eléctrica. Para mejorar esta situación, se han desarrollado diferentes proyectos de electrificación rural, que tiene como objetivo satisfacer las necesidades de abastecimiento de energía eléctrica en las comunidades que no cuentan con este servicio. En este documento se presenta un análisis regional de competitividad tecnológica para 8 comunidades rurales del Proyecto “RECOMSOL” de Cintalapa, Chiapas, con la ayuda de la herramienta IntiGIS, un Sistema de Información Geográfica (SIG) que utiliza variables técnicas, económicas, geográficas y socio-demográficas, que determinan la mejor tecnología en función del Coste de Electrificación Equivalente (LEC). IntiGIS permite obtener una orientación en la elección de la mejor tecnología para su implementación en la región. Los resultados muestran que la primera opción tecnológica son los sistemas fotovoltaicos para todas las comunidades y como una posible segunda opción la tecnología diésel central. Ambas tecnologías mostraron los costes más bajos del LEC., Postprint (published version)

Wind-photovoltaic stand-alone electrification systems are a suitable option to provide electricity to isolated villages, in the right context of rural areas far from the national grid. Many initiatives promote electrification projects in rural areas spread across a territory; generally considering each village independently, implementing local microgrids. However, for the case of several neighbouring villages, a regional microgrid connecting them together may reduce costs. Determining the optimal design requires solving complex optimisation combinatorial problems to explore possible generator combinations and microgrid connections. In order to find the solution, a two-scale procedure is proposed: first, a local-scale mathematical model is developed to design a microgrid for each village; and then, a regional-scale model is proposed to design a microgrid connecting the villages together. Both models minimise the lifecycle costs and optimise supply quality, while considering the electrical requirements of end-users and solving for the location of equipment and the microgrid structure. For its validation, the two-scale procedure is considered for five small villages in La Rioja (Northern Spain); according to an Administration request to promote electrification for rural development. As a result, an optimised regional microgrid is proposed, supplying the five villages together, using medium voltage lines between them and low voltage lines internally, with generators centrally located on a windier mountain peak., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (author's final draft)

Wind-photovoltaic systems are a suitable option to provide electricity to isolated communities autonomously. To design these systems, there are recent mathematical models that solve the location and type of each of the electrification components and the design of the possible distribution microgrids. When the amount of demand points to electrify increases, solving the mathematical model requires a computational time that becomes infeasible in practice. To speed up the solving process, three heuristic methods based on mixed integer linear programming (MILP) are presented in this paper: Relax and Fix heuristics, heuristics based on a Corridor Method and Increasing Radius heuristics. In all algorithms first a relaxed MILP is solved to obtain a base solution and then it is used as a starting point to find a feasible solution by searching in a reduced search space. For each type of heuristic several options to relax and to reduce the solution space are developed and tested. Extensive computational experiments based on real projects are carried out and results show that the best heuristic vary according to the size of instances., Postprint (author's final draft)