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The genus Morchella has gone through turbulent taxonomic treatments. Although significant progress in Morchella systematics has been achieved in the past decade, several problems remain unresolved and taxonomy in the genus is still in flux. In late 2019, a paper published in the open-access journal Scientific Reports raised serious concerns about the taxonomic stability of the genus, but also about the future of academic publishing. The paper, entitled “High diversity of Morchella and a novel lineage of the esculenta clade from the north Qinling Mountains revealed by GCPSR-based study” by Phanpadith and colleagues, suffered from gross methodological errors, included false results and artifactual phylogenies, had misapplied citations throughout, and proposed a new species name invalidly. Although the paper was eventually retracted by Scientific Reports in 2021, the fact that such an overtly flawed and scientifically unsound paper was published in a high-ranked Q1 journal raises alarming questions about quality controls and safekeeping procedures in scholarly publishing. Using this paper as a case study, we provide a critical review on the pitfalls of Morchella systematics followed by a series of recommendations for the delimitation of species, description of taxa, and ultimately for a sustainable taxonomy in Morchella. Problems and loopholes in the academic publishing system are also identified and discussed, and additional quality controls in the pre- and post-publication stages are proposed.

During the last 20 years citizen science has largely contributed at promoting knowledge about mushroom diversity in Greece. In the frame of an ongoing collaboration among amateur and professional mycologists, hundreds of specimens have been subjected to DNA sequencing, followed by phylogenetic analyses and detailed morphoanatomical examination of selected collections. The study of recent findings revealed the existence of seven species which are new records for the Greek mycobiota, i.e. Amanita codinae, Cleistocybe carneogrisea, Hebeloma limbatum, Infundibulicybe alkaliviolascens, Lepiota farinolens, Leucoagaricus pilatianus and Pholiotina mediterranea. In particular, C. carneogrisea is a rare Mediterranean species, which has been proposed by the IUCN for inclusion in the Global Red List of Fungi. Moreover, these predominantly or exclusively southern European species are described and evaluated. All findings are discussed in respect to their most prominent features and closely related taxa, while ITS phylogenetic trees are presented for A. codinae and L. farinolens by including mainly species of the sections Lepidella and Ovisporae, respectively.

Ectomycorrhizal symbiosis appears extensively in the Northern Hemisphere, where Mediterranean ecosystems constitute an important ecological area of considerable biodiversity value. Littoral sand dunes are among high-risk habitats, and ectomycorrhizal lifestyle contributes significantly to supporting life in such regions. Mallocybe heimii (Bon) Matheny & Esteve-Rav. (Inocybaceae, Basidiomycota) and the very similar M. arenaria (Bon) Matheny & Esteve-Rav. grow in poor, usually sandy soils, in association with angiosperms or gymnosperms. Basidiomata originally identified under these names were collected from littoral sand dunes of Greece, and their morpho-anatomical characteristics were examined in conjunction with material derived from other European regions. Sequences from basidiomata and root tips corresponding to the nuclear rDNA internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) and large subunit (LSU) were obtained and analyzed. Phylogenetic results demonstrated that material identified as M. heimii or M. arenaria form a single well-supported group, while M. agardhii (N. Lund) Matheny & Esteve-Rav. is confirmed to be distinct from M. arenaria (the latter was initially described as a variety of the former, i.e., I. agardhii var. arenaria Bon). A detailed tree of the genus Mallocybe was generated on the basis of concatenated ITS and LSU sequences, and relationships of selected taxa are discussed in the light of morphological and sequence data. In addition, the first morphotype descriptions of M. heimii ectomycorrhizae with Cistus creticus L. and Pinus halepensis Miller are hereby provided. Both morphotypes exhibited the typical characteristics of Inocybe/Mallocybe ectomycorrhizae; however, differences were noted, the most significant being the presence of clamps on mantle hyphae and the type of anastomoses.

GanodermaP. Karst. is a cosmopolitan genus of white-rot fungi which comprises species with highly-prized pharmaceutical properties, valuable biotechnological applications and of significant phytopathological interest. However, the status of the taxonomy within the genus is still highly controversial and ambiguous despite the progress made through molecular approaches. A metadata analysis of 3908 nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) rDNA sequences obtained from GenBank/ENA/DDBJ and UNITE was performed by targeting sequences annotated asGanoderma, but also sequences from environmental samples and from material examined for the first time.Ganodermataxa segregated into five main lineages (Clades A to E). Clade A corresponds to the core of laccate species and includesG. shanxienseand three major well-supported clusters: Cluster A.1 (‘G. lucidumsensu lato’) consists of taxa from Eurasia and North America, Cluster A.2 of material with worldwide occurrence includingG. resinaceumand Cluster A.3 is composed of species originating from all continents except Europe and comprisesG. lingzhi. Clade B includesG. applanatumand allied species with a Holarctic distribution. Clade C comprises taxa from Asia and Africa only. Clade D consists of laccate taxa with tropical/subtropical occurrence, while clade E harbours the highest number of non-laccate species with a cosmopolitan distribution. The 92Ganoderma-associated names, initially used for sequences labelling, correspond to at least 80 taxa. Amongst them, 21 constitute putatively new phylospecies after our application of criteria relevant to the robustness/support of the terminal clades, intra- and interspecific genetic divergence and available biogeographic data. Moreover, several other groups or individual sequences seem to represent distinct taxonomic entities and merit further investigation. A particularly large number of the public sequences was revealed to be insufficiently and/or incorrectly identified, for example, 87% and 78% of entries labelled asG. australeandG. lucidum, respectively. In general, ITS demonstrated high efficacy in resolving relationships amongst most of theGanodermataxa; however, it was not equally useful at elucidating species barriers across the entire genus and such cases are outlined. Furthermore, we draw conclusions on biogeography by evaluating species occurrence on a global scale in conjunction with phylogenetic structure/patterns. The sequence variability assessed in ITS spacers could be further exploited for diagnostic purposes.

Chlorophyllum accommodates lamellate agaricoid species as well as sequestrate angiocarpic taxa, which do not form a monophyletic lineage within the genus. To clarify phylogenetic affinities and delimit species boundaries among sequestrate representatives of the genus, we analyzed historical and contemporary material from a broad geographic range, encompassing North America, southern Africa, eastern Asia, the Greek and Iberian peninsulas, and the Mediterranean islands of Cyprus and Lesvos. Six sequestrate lineages of Chlorophyllum were identified, which appear to have evolved in at least three independent gasteromycetation events. Multigene analysis of the nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer region ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS) and portions of the nuc 28S rDNA (28S), RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (rpb2), and translation elongation factor 1-α (tef1) genes revealed the presence of a previously undescribed species, introduced here as Chlorophyllum levantinum, sp. nov. Its sister species C. lusitanicum, previously known only from Spain, is shown to have a wider distribution throughout the Mediterranean basin. A South African collection of Secotium gueinzii, a poorly known taxon described in 1840 and seldom appearing in literature since, was also shown to nest within Chlorophyllum. An epitype for this rare species is designated, Secotium becomes a priority synonym of Chlorophyllum, and nomenclatural implications are discussed. The phylogenetic placement of C. arizonicum is confirmed after successful sequencing of the century-old holotype and an undescribed sister lineage of this species detected. Emended descriptions of sections Chlorophyllum, Endoptychorum, and Sphaerospororum are provided to reflect current results, along with updated descriptions and extensive imagery for all known sequestrate taxa of Chlorophyllum.

Lactarius pseudoscrobiculatus is a rare Mediterranean species defined on the basis of morphological characters, and reported from coastal areas of south France, northeast Spain and northwest Italy growing in association with maritime pines (Pinus pinaster and P. halepensis). Prior to the present study, no data existed about its phylogenetic position and the relationships to other taxa of the genus. In the frame of this work, the morphoanatomical features of two pertinent collections from Ikaria Island (East Aegean, Greece) and the area of Lucca (Tuscany, Italy) were studied in detail and compared to the original description. The respective material as well as the type specimen were also subjected to ITS rDNA sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that all examined specimens nested within a well-supported clade corresponding to L. pseudoscrobiculatus which is positioned among other species of Lactarius subsect. Scrobiculati. In addition, L. pseudoscrobiculatus formed a sister group with L. citriolens, evidencing their relative affinity. The confirmed presence of L. pseudoscrobiculatus in the East Mediterranean in association with P. brutia and Cistus spp. expands existing knowledge on the geographic distribution and ecology of this ectomycorrhizal species.

Alluvial forests dominated by black alder (Alnus glutinosa) are widespread in Europe along river banks and watercourses forming a habitat of renowned ecological/conservation importance. Despite the considerable interest this habitat has attracted in terms of the associated fungal diversity, very few pertinent data are available from the eastern Mediterranean. Andros island (Aegean Sea, Greece) hosts the southernmost population of A. glutinosa in the Balkan Peninsula, such stands have been systematically inventoried for several years in respect to macrofungi. In total, 187 specimens were collected and studied by examining morphoanatomic features and by evaluating (when necessary) the outcome of sequencing the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) to elucidate their identity and obtain an insight into phylogenetic relationships. As a result, 106 species were recorded, 92 are saprotrophic and 14 form ectomycorrhizae (ECM) with alders. Twenty-one species are first national records, while 68 other species are reported for the first time from this habitat in Greece. Several findings of particular interest due to their rarity, ecological preferences and/or taxonomic status are presented in detail and discussed, e.g. six Alnicola taxa, Cortinarius americanus, Lactarius obscuratus, Paxillus olivellus and Russula pumila (among the ECMs), and the saprotrophs Entoloma uranochroum, Gymnopilus arenophilus, Hyphoderma nemorale, Lepiota ochraceofulva, Phanerochaete livescens and Psathyrella hellebosensis.

The sclerophyllous forests of Quercus ilex (holm oak) possess a unique position in earth’s biosphere, existing only in countries of the Mediterranean basin. However, very little information exists about mushrooms associated with holm oak in east Mediterranean, including Greece, where Q. ilex appears mostly in relict forests and fragmented stands. A pertinent long-term investigation was undertaken in selected Q. ilex dominated habitats of Crete, Andros, Naxos and Ikaria islands (Aegean Archipelago) as well as in mountains of Attica. Specimens of xylotrophic basidiomycetes were collected and identified. As a result, 74 species were recorded; among them Hemimycena cephalotricha, Hyphoderma cremeoalbum, Hyphodontia radula, Irpex litschaueri, Mycena algeriensis, Phanerochaete martelliana, Phloeomana alba and Phlebia unica constitute new records for the Greek mycobiota, while 68 species are reported for the first time on Q. ilex in Greece. Moreover, the presence of Fomitiporia mediterranea on this host ...

Six wild edible mushroom species, Agaricus bisporus, A. bitorquis, A. gennadii, Coprinus comatus, Psathyrella candolleana and Volvopluteus gloiocephalus, were collected from the Greater Athens area (Greece), together with their soil substrates (two depth-layers) for studying bioaccumulation of heavy metals in a densely populated urban environment. Total and bioavailable Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn concentrations in soils were assessed along with their respective concentrations in mushrooms, and were evaluated in conjunction with soil properties, including K, P and Na content, CaCO3 equivalent percentage, mechanical composition, pH and organic matter. In particular, Cu, Pb, Zn and Ni displayed a high variability in their total and bioavailable concentrations measured in the upper soil layer. Relatively high Pb and Ni contents were measured in mushrooms, while Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn concentrations varied considerably. No significant correlations were detected between total concentrations of heavy metals in soils and mushrooms, whereas bioavailable fractions for several metals were significantly correlated with their respective content in A. bisporus, C. comatus, P. candolleana and V. gloiocephalus. K, Na and P concentrations in soils were associated to the content of several metals in fruit-bodies. The effect of soil texture on metals accumulation by mushrooms was species-dependent since high correlations were found for V. gloiocephalus and C. comatus only. Interactions between metals content in fruit-bodies seem to be species-specific except for Ni vs. Fe and Mn vs. Fe, which are positively correlated in all cases. Overaccumulation of metals in fruit-bodies was established only in respect to the bioavailable fractions of Cu, Mn, Zn and Ni in soil. The levels of toxicity for Pb were exceeded in mushrooms of five species, whereas the rest of the heavy metals (with the exception of Cu) were detected at lower contents than their recommended dietary allowances or tolerable upper intake levels.

An updated overview of the outcome of studies conducted on the culinary-medicinal mushroom Pleurotus nebrodensis is presented by placing emphasis on the clarification of the taxonomic identity of P. nebrodensis and other related taxa possessing entirely white to cream basidiomes, which grow in association with different plants of the family Apiaceae. Cultivation techniques, quality of the product sold and sales price, as well as nutritional and medicinal aspects are discussed. Taking also into consideration the high economic importance of P. nebrodensis, it is essential to proceed with the verification of the commercial strains currently available in the international market under the name of "P. nebrodensis" since it is very probable that many (or most) of them do not represent the real P. nebrodensis. TO confirm this hypothesis, an in silico analysis was conducted on a large of number of ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 rRNA sequences deposited in the National Center for Biotechnology Information database under the name P. nebrodensis. Results demonstrated that all "P nebrodensis" material examined from China (plus several sequences of no reported origin) corresponded to P. eryngii subsp. tuoliensis, with only 2 exceptions, which were grouped within P. eryngii sensu stricto. The real P. nebrodensis biological material from Italy and Greece is certified and is available upon request by the authors at the University of Palermo and the Agricultural University of Athens.

The name Pleurotus opuntiae is indiscriminately used for describing mushrooms with white to off-white to white-grey pilei with short or absent stipe and dimitic hyphal system, which grow on plants of the genera Opuntia, Yucca, Agave, Phytolacca etc. However, the outcome of the present study evidences that this name should be reserved for specimens deriving from the Mediterranean area only; an epitype originating from Italy on Opuntia ficus-indica is designated. Pertinent material was sequenced by using the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) and found to be phylogenetically related to P. djamor from Kenya and Nigeria, while members of the P. djamor complex from other continents were clearly more distant. Results were further corroborated by examining the large subunit of nuclear ribosomal DNA (LSU) and the second subunit of RNA polymerase II (RPB2). The P. djamor complex shows high intraspecific polymorphism evidenced by sequence divergence and genetic distance values, presents a cosmopolitan distribution and also comprises material initially identified as P. flabellatus, P. opuntiae, P. ostreatoroseus, P. parsonsiae and P. salmoneostramineus. An ITS tree including representative specimens from all major Pleurotus species is provided for the first time and ambiguous taxa are discussed in the context of new findings.

An investigation on the macrofungal diversity of the National Park “Appennino Lucano, Val D’Agri, Lagonegrese” (Basilicata, southern Italy) was carried out, together with an evaluation of wild edible mushrooms in agro-forest ecosystems and their possible exploitation as a new source of food and revenue in rural and under-developed areas of this region. An unpublished list of 249 mushroom taxa (229 Basidiomycota and 20 Ascomycota), mostly belonging to the genera Tricholoma, Tuber, Russula, Amanita, Boletus, Lactarius, Mycena, Agaricus, Clitocybe and Hygrophorus, growing in this important natural area is provided together with ecological characterization of the recorded specimens. Inonotus obliquus is a new record for Basilicata, while Mycena bresadolana is reported for the first time from southern Italy. The presence of Amaurodon mustialae¨nsis, an extremely rare species of the northern hemisphere reported for the first time on white fir, is noteworthy. Among the previous findings, 116 species of edible mushrooms are presented and discussed in view of their relative abundance and edibility.

As part of an inventory of macrofungi in selected islands of the Aegean Archipelago (Greece), 18 species of heterobasidiomycetes (phylum Basidiomycota) belonging to the orders Auriculariales, Cantharellales, Dacrymycetales and Tremellales were collected and identified from the islands of Agios Efstratios, Amorgos, Andros, Crete, Ikaria, Naxos and Nisyros. Among the heterobasidiomycetous fungi collected, Ceratobasidium cornigerum, Dacrymyces lacrymalis, Exidiopsis effusa, E. galzinii, Thanatephorus amygdalisporus, Tremella aurantia, Tulasnella pallida and T. pruinosa constitute first national records, while the genera Ceratobasidium, Thanatephorus and Tulasnella are reported for the first time in Greece. All species are listed with information on their hosts/substrates and occurrence in the investigated islands, while the most interesting records are described, illustrated, and critically discussed in the light of existing taxonomic and distribution data.

The Pleurotus eryngii species-complex comprises choice edible mushrooms growing on roots and lower stem residues of Apiaceae (umbellifers) plants. Material deriving from extensive sampling was studied by mating compatibility, morphological and ecological criteria, and through analysis of ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 and IGS1 rRNA sequences. Results revealed that P. eryngii sensu stricto forms a diverse and widely distributed aggregate composed of varieties elaeoselini, eryngii, ferulae, thapsiae, and tingitanus. Pleurotus eryngii subsp. tuoliensis comb. nov. is a phylogenetically sister group to the former growing only on various Ferula species in Asia. The existence of Pleurotus nebrodensis outside of Sicily (i.e., in Greece) is reported for the first time on the basis of molecular data, while P. nebrodensis subsp. fossulatus comb. nov. is a related Asiatic taxon associated with the same plant (Prangos ferulacea). Last, Pleurotus ferulaginis sp. nov. grows on Ferulago campestris in northeast Italy, Slovenia and Hungary; it occupies a distinct phylogenetic position accompanied with significant differences in spore size and mating incompatibility versus other Pleurotus populations. Coevolution with umbellifers and host/substrate specificity seem to play key roles in speciation processes within this fungal group. An identification key to the nine Pleurotus taxa growing in association with Apiaceae plants is provided.

In the frame of studying the diversity of wood-rotting macrofungi in Aegean islands, a notable Mediterranean biodiversity “hotspot”, the following hymenochaetoid species are reported for the first time in Greece: Fomitiporia erecta, Fomitiporia rosmarini, Hymenochaete fuliginosa, Inonotus cuticularis and Phylloporia ribis. The records of F. erecta and F. rosmarini are the first ever on Quercus coccifera in a worldwide context. Furthermore, they extend the known distribution of both species to the east Mediterranean region as well. The detected occurrence of P. ribis constitutes the first report of this genus for Greece; it was found on living trees and shrubs of Crataegus monogyna and Rhamnus alaternus in Andros and on Spartium junceum in Naxos. I. cuticularis was recorded on Acer sempervirens living tree trunk in Andros and on Quercus ithaburensis subsp. macrolepis in Agios Efstratios, while H. fuliginosa was detected in Ikaria on Quercus ilex. Detailed descriptions are provided for all five taxa, and th...

Naxos and Amorgos are islands in the Aegean Sea with a typically arid to semiarid climate, the vegetation being dominated by thermo-Mediterranean shrubs. From the floristic point of view, both are among the most interesting islands of the Cyclades. However, no data were available on their fungal diversity. This work presents an annotated check-list of the basidiomycetes belonging to the subclass Agaricomycetidae (Agaricales and Boletales) from these two islands. A total of 142 species and subspecific taxa are recognized and assigned to 58 genera. The genus Simocybe as well as 21 taxa at the species or subspecies level constitute new records for Greece, while further 76 taxa represent first national reports for habitat, hosts and/or substrates. A brief description of key diagnostic characters — in conjunction with a discussion of pertinent literature — is provided for the most interesting findings.

The current taxonomic status of Hydnum notarisii Inzenga is here critically analyzed on the basis of Giuseppe Inzenga’s original description and of the specimens kept in his private herbarium hosted in the Istituto Agrario Castelnuovo (Palermo, Italy) and in the Herbarium of Museum of Evolution, Uppsala University, Sweden (UPS). The detailed morphological study of the original dried material through the use of compound optical and scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that this particular fungus possesses very similar features with Hericium erinaceus (Bull.) Pers.

Members of the ectomycorrhizal genus Lactarius form symbiotic relationships with a wide range of plant species. For the purposes of this study, 29 specimens originally assigned to L. atlanticus, L. serifluus and L. subumbonatus were examined by including all pertinent available material from Greece. The detailed study of macroscopic and microscopic characteristics by using compound optical, differential interference contrast (DIC) and scanning electron microscopy in combination with molecular approaches (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 rDNA sequencing) permitted a clear separation between L. atlanticus and L. subumbonatus, while their basidiospore shape and height of ornamentation were found to be of diagnostic value. Moreover, the morphological delimitation between the specimens identified as L. serifluus and L. subumbonatus is not clear, and these specimens were intermixed into the same phylogenetic cluster with high support. Thus, the latter name should be considered as a synonym of the former. As concerns other related taxa of L. subg. Russularia, the American L. rubidus and L. subserifluus demonstrated relatively high evolutionary affinity with European collections of L. serifluus/L. subumbonatus and L. atlanticus, respectively.

The main goal of this dissertation was the study of representative islands of Cyclades in regard to the diversity of macrofungi (basidiomycetes, subphylum Agaricomycotina). In the frame of this work tha major islands of Cyclades Andros, Naxos and Amorgos were selected for field work. More than 1500 specimens were collected. described and studied as regards their macroscopic and microscopic features. The methodology is presented in details, while all the collected biological material is deposited in the fungarium of the Laboratory of General and Agricultural Microbiology of the Agricultural University of Athens (L.G.A.M.-A.U.A.). The results of this study were the inventory of 450 taxa of basidiomycetes, belonging to 141 genera. Four species are new for science, six genera and `48 taxa of lower taxonomic level were recorded for the first time in Greece, while two species were recorded for the first time in European continent.

In semi-arid Mediterranean environments, fungal activity is fundamental for buffering biotic and abiotic stress to the plant and for sustaining a vegetation cover. Despite the important role that fungi play in habitats stability, mycological data from Mediterranean ecosystems are scarce and fragmentary. We investigated fungal diversity in several areas characterized by Mediterranean maquis, from continental Italy, Sicily, and Greece in order to contribute to the analysis of distribution, ecology, and diversity of macrofungi in evergreen sclerophyllous shrublands at different elevation and distance from the seashore across the Mediterranean Basin. Several fungal taxa that are remarkable due to their ecology, rarity, and limited geographical distribution were recovered. Among them, the ectomycorrhizal species Amanita dunensis and A. valens were recorded for the first time in Italy. The wood-inhabiting macrofungi, Aleurodiscus dextrinoideocerussatus, Peniophorella tsugae, Perenniporia meridionalis, Phanerochaete martelliana, Vararia ochroleuca, and six Peniophora species were reported for the first time in Greece. Some species, such as Gloeodontia columbiensis, Ceriporia aurantiocarnescens, Peniophora pithya, and P. tamaricicola were collected on new substrates. For the two rare basidiomycetes Amanita eliae and Battarrea phalloides, molecular identification and phylogenetic analysis gave valuable information on their relationship with similar taxa. © 2014 © 2014 Società Botanica Italiana.

Fungi are organisms of significant importance not only for the crucial roles they undertake in nature but also for many human activities that are strictly dependent on them. Indeed, fungi possess fundamental positions in ecosystems functioning including nutrient cycles and wood decomposition. As concerns human-related activities, edible and non-edible mushrooms are also involved and/or exploited in forestry, pharmaceutical industry and food production; hence, nowadays they represent a major economic source worldwide. In order to maintain and improve their strategic importance, several conservation strategies, such as habitat preservation, are needed. This article reports several contributions inherent to the relationships between wood-decaying fungi, edible and non-edible mushrooms and their potential exploitation as non-timber forest products and genetic resources.