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Objective: To determine whether flexion-extension cervical spine radiography (FECSR) is abnormal in children who have sustained blunt cervical spine injury (CSI) when standard cervical spine radiography (SCSR) demonstrates no acute abnormalities., Methods: This was a blinded radiographic review of 129 patients < or = 16 years of age evaluated at an academic pediatric trauma center during July 1990-March 1996. All patients had SCSR (anteroposterior/lateral views) and FECSR performed for a trauma-related event within seven days of injury., Results: Of 46 patients without acute abnormalities on SCSR, one patient (with final clinical diagnosis of "no CSI") had acute abnormalities on FECSR (95% CI = 0.06% to 11.5%). Of 50 patients with isolated loss of lordosis on SCSR, no patient had acute abnormalities on FECSR (95% CI = 0% to 5.8%). The FECSR review revealed no acute abnormalities in 75 of 83 patients (90.4%) with suspicious findings for CSI viewed on SCSR (95% CI = 81.9% to 95.7%). Complications during FECSR were noted in one patient with transient paresthesias (0.8%) (95% CI = 0.02% to 4.2%)., Conclusions: In children who underwent acute radiographic evaluation of blunt cervical spine trauma, FECSR was unlikely to be abnormal when no acute abnormality or isolated loss of lordosis was evident on SCSR. In a subset of patients with suspicious findings for occult CSI on SCSR, FECSR was useful in ruling out ligamentous instability in the acute, posttrauma setting.

This report presents a retrospective analysis of the authors' experience with occipitocervical fusions in children and adolescents during the last 2 decades. A description of an operative technique devised by the senior author (JEH), and a comparison of the results using this and other methods of fusion are given. Twenty-three patients underwent occipitocervical fusion. Fifteen of the patients were operated on using the authors' technique. To achieve stable fixation of the distal cervical vertebra a threaded Kirschner wire was passed transversely through the spinous process; occipital fixation was achieved by the traditional method of wiring corticocancellous bone graft to the skull through burr holes. The occipital wires then were wrapped around the Kirschner wire and the graft was cradled in the resulting nest. Halo immobilization was used in 10 patients for an average of 12.5 weeks (range, 6-24 weeks). Twenty-two patients achieved successful fusion at an average followup of 5.8 years (range, 1-14.33 years). Several complications, including transient quadriplegia in one patient, pseudarthrosis in two (one of which persists), hardware fixation failure in one, unintended distal extension of the fusion, pneumonia, wound infection, halo pin infection, skin breakdown under the halo vest, hydrocephalus, cerebrospinal fluid leak, and traumatic fusion fracture were encountered. Results using the technique described herein are comparable with or better than the results reported in the previous literature, and the results of the patients in this series in whom the technique was not used.

The strong association between congenital heart disease and spinal deformity is well established, but data on the risks and outcome of spinal fusion surgery in patients with congenital heart disease are scarce. The purpose of this study was to identify predictors of perioperative risk and outcome in a large series of children and adolescents with congenital heart disease who underwent spinal fusion for scoliosis or kyphosis. In the authors' retrospective analysis of 74 consecutive patients with congenital heart disease undergoing spinal fusion, there were two deaths (2.7%) and 18 significant complications (24.3%) in the perioperative period. Preoperative cyanosis (arterial oxygen saturation < 90% at rest) with uncorrected or incompletely corrected congenital heart disease was associated with both deaths. Complications occurred in nine of 18 (50%) patients with cyanosis and in 11 of 56 (20%) patients without cyanosis. As judged by multivariate analysis the best predictors of perioperative outcome were the overall physical status of the patient as represented by the American Society of Anesthesiologists' preoperative score and a higher rate of intraoperative blood loss. Seventeen of 43 patients (40%) with an American Society of Anesthesiologists score of 3 or higher experienced complications including two perioperative deaths. Successful spinal fusion and correction were achieved in 97% of patients. Children and adolescents with congenital heart disease can undergo elective spinal fusion with risks that relate to overall cardiac status. Careful assessment of preoperative status by pediatric cardiologists and cardiac anesthesiologists familiar with surgical treatment of patients with congenital heart disease will assist the orthopaedic surgeon in providing the most realistic estimate of risk.

Four children with thoracic level paraplegia and severe myelokyphosis underwent distal spinal cord resection at the time of kyphectomy. All four children were continent before spinal cord resection and became incontinent immediately afterward. Two children in retrospect had preoperative urodynamics that showed intact innervation to the external sphincter, and two had no preoperative urodynamic studies. All four had evidence of lower urinary tract denervation on urodynamic studies performed after cord resection. The urologic and urodynamic consequences of spinal cord resection at the time of kyphectomy in children with myelodysplasia are reviewed. Resection of the distal spinal cord in thoracic level myelodysplasia may cause postoperative incontinence in some previously continent patients. Preoperative urodynamic evaluation and urologic consultation is recommended. If individual evaluation indicates that residual sacral function is beneficial to urologic management, kyphectomy without cord resection is preferable.

Study Design: A retrospective review of transpedicular instrumentation used in a series of 24 patients with myelodysplastic spinal deformities and deficient posterior elements., Objective: To describe the usefulness and efficacy of these instruments in the treatment of complicated myelodysplastic spinal deformity., Methods: The mean preoperative scoliosis was 75.7 degrees (range, 39-130 degrees) in the 22 patients with scoliotic deformities; 4 patients with thoracic hyperkyphoses averaged 70.5 degrees (range, 46-90 degrees) and 10 patients with lumbar kyphoses averaged 80.5 degrees (range, 42-120 degrees). The instrumentation extended to the sacrum in 4 patients and the pelvis in 9; 10 patients also underwent anterior release and fusion and 7 underwent concomitant spinal cord detethering. At an average follow-up of 4.0 years (2.0-7.7 years; one patient died at 8 months), all patients have fused (with the exception of two lumbosacral pseudarthroses)., Results: At last follow-up, deformity measured 32.1 degrees scoliosis (range, 6-85 degrees), 30.8 degrees thoracic kyphosis (range, 24-35 degrees), and 0.0 degree lumbar kyphosis (range, 35 degrees kyphosis to 29 degrees lordosis). Three patients lost some neurologic function after surgery; two recovered within 6 months and one has incomplete recovery. No ambulatory patient lost the ability to walk. Five patients required additional surgical procedures; in three cases, there was instrumentation breakage associated with pseudarthrosis or unfused spinal segments., Conclusions: Pedicle screw instrumentation is uniquely suited to the deficient myelodysplastic spine. Compared with historical control subjects, these devices have proven capable of significant correction of both scoliotic and kyphotic deformities. This instrumentation appears particularly useful in preserving lumbar lordosis in all patients and may preserve more lumbar motion in ambulatory myelodysplasia patients.

Study Design: A retrospective assessment of the effectiveness of lumbar pedicle screws versus laminar hooks in lumbar curve correction with double major curves in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis., Objective: To determine if pedicle screw fixation of the lumbar spine has any advantage compared with multiple laminar hook instrumentation in the treatment of double major curves in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis., Summary of Background Data: Although hooks have been used most commonly, pedicle screws may offer advantages in correction and maintenance of reduction of the lumbar curve in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis., Methods: A consecutive series of 39 patients with double major curves underwent thoracic and lumbar instrumentation by a single surgeon. Lumbar pedicle screws and hooks were used in 20 patients (Group S) and in 19 patients only lumbar hooks were used (Group H). Thoracic Cotrel-Dubousset instrumentation with hooks was the same in both groups. Preoperative age, gender, bracing, and Cobb angles were similar in both groups. Preoperative, 1-month postoperative, and latest follow-up standing posteroanterior and lateral spine radiographs were blinded to the surgeon and lumbar instrumentation covered to hide its identity. Measurements included Cobb angles, preoperative flexibility, lumbar and thoracic apical vertebral deviation, and reduction of lateral tilt and lateral displacement of the first free lumbar vertebra below the instrumentation. Percent correction, maintenance of correction at follow-up, and total levels fused were calculated., Results: The mean follow-up was 3.5 years (range, 2-8 years), which was similar for Groups H and S. Pedicle screws appear to offer some advantage in lumbar curve correction, maintenance of correction, and correction of the uninstrumented spine below the fusion when compared with the use of hooks alone. Horizontalization of the first free lumbar vertebra below the instrumentation percent correction of tilt: 62% screws vs. 11% hooks; P = 0.0003), residual tilt (8 degrees screws vs. 17 degrees hooks; P = 0.004), and loss of horizontalization at follow-up (5% screws vs. 26% hooks) were dramatically better for the group using screws. Lumbar curve correction (72% screws vs. 60% hooks; P = 0.026), loss of lumbar curve correction (5% screws vs. 13% hooks), and correction of lateral apical vertebral deviation (2.2-cm screws vs. 1.5-cm hooks or 63% vs. 31%; P = 0.013) were better when screws were used. There was no significant difference in loss of correction of the thoracic curves (35% vs. 37%) or any difference in loss of correction of lateral displacement of the thoracic apical vertebra (12% vs. 14%). There was no difference in total levels fused, operative blood loss, operative time, or ultimate patient outcome. No patients in either group had spinal imbalance at latest follow-up. There were no complications related to pedicle screw placement. Two cases of transient postoperative superior mesenteric artery syndrome (duodenal obstruction by the superior mesenteric artery) in the pedicle screw group are attributed to acute correction of the lumbar scoliosis and thoracolumbar kyphosis with resultant lordosis at the thoracolumbar junction., Conclusions: Lumbar pedicle screws may offer greater lumbar curve correction, better maintenance of correction, and greater correction of the uninstrumented spine below double major curves. No complications were associated with the placement of pedicle screws.

Significant spinal deformity is particularly common in nonambulatory patients with myelodysplasia. Progressive deformity may be caused by congenital anomalies, paralytic collapse, hip contractures, or spinal cord tethering. Existing or projected functional impairment should be the principle indication for treatment. Surgical treatment is complicated by poor soft tissue coverage, associated contractures, lack of sensation, weak bone, and absence of posterior elements. Successful fusion can be achieved by circumferential (anterior and posterior) fusion and current rigid segmental instrumentation. The unique deformities and bony anatomy require individualized techniques to achieve fixation.

With use of data culled from twenty studies, members of the Prevalence and Natural History Committee of the Scoliosis Research Society conducted a meta-analysis of 1910 patients who had been managed with bracing (1459 patients), lateral electrical surface stimulation (322 patients), or observation (129 patients) because of idiopathic scoliosis. Three variables - the type of treatment, the level of maturity, and the criterion for failure - were analyzed to determine which had the greatest impact on the outcome. We also examined the effect of the type of brace that was used and the duration of bracing on the success of treatment. The number of failures of treatment in each study was determined by calculating the total number of patients who had unacceptable progression of the curve (as defined in the study), who could not comply with or tolerate treatment, or who had an operation. The percentage of patients who completed a given course of treatment without failure, adjusted for the sample sizes of the studies in which that treatment was used, yielded the weighted mean proportion of success for that treatment. The weighted mean proportion of success was 0.39 for lateral electrical surface stimulation, 0.49 for observation only, 0.60 for bracing for eight hours per day, 0.62 for bracing for sixteen hours per day, and 0.93 for bracing for twenty-three hours per day. The twenty-three-hour regimens were significantly more successful than any other treatment (p < 0.0001). The difference between the eight and sixteen-hour regimens was not significant, with the numbers available. Although lateral electrical surface stimulation was associated with a lower weighted mean proportion of success than observation only, the difference was not significant, with the numbers available. This meta-analysis demonstrates the effectiveness of bracing for the treatment of idiopathic scoliosis. The weighted mean proportion of success for the six types of braces included in this review was 0.92, with the highest proportion (0.99) achieved with the Milwaukee brace. We found that use of the Milwaukee brace or another thoracolumbosacral orthosis for twenty-three hours per day effectively halted progression of the curve. Bracing for eight or sixteen hours per day was found to be significantly less effective than bracing for twenty-three hours per day (p < 0.0001).

Segmental spinal dysgenesis is a rare congenital condition of the lumbar or thoracolumbar spine that can be associated with significant progressive or permanent neurologic defects, including paraplegia. In the past, both bracing and surgery have been recommended. Of the seven children we have seen with this problem, three have lost motor function between presentation and the time of surgery. Our experience suggests that to prevent catastrophic neurologic deterioration, surgery is indicated once the diagnosis is made.

We retrospectively reviewed the magnetic resonance imaging studies that had been made for ninety-five patients who had idiopathic scoliosis. We wished to determine if we could identify any criteria that should be met before these studies are performed. The study group included thirty-one male patients and sixty-four female patients. The average age at the time of the imaging study was thirteen years (range, one to twenty-eight years). The average curve was 41 degrees (range, 11 to 95 degrees). Fourteen patients were seen to have an intraspinal abnormality on the imaging study: twelve had a syrinx, one had a syrinx and an astrocytoma of the spinal cord, and one had dural ectasia. Five of the eight patients who were less than eleven years old and who had a left thoracic curve had an intraspinal abnormality on the imaging study, but this combination of factors did not indicate the need for operative intervention. Four of the intraspinal abnormalities in the fourteen patients necessitated neurosurgical intervention; if the criteria for obtaining the imaging study had been restricted to neck pain and headache--particularly with exertion--and neurological findings such as ataxia, weakness, and a cavus foot, these abnormalities would have been diagnosed.

The physical therapy and orthopedic management of patients with myelodysplasia from infancy to adulthood are reviewed. The overall goal for the child with myelodysplasia is functional independence. Physical therapy and orthopedic intervention enable the individual to achieve this goal. Associated problems, however, such as Arnold-Chiari malformation, hydrocephalus, and tethered spinal cord, influence functional expectations. Physical therapy management begins in the neonatal period and continues through adolescence. Treatment is modified at the various stages of development. Knowledge of current orthotic and adaptive equipment is necessary to achieve optimal locomotor function. Orthopedic management decisions are based on musculoskeletal and neurologic assessments, to which the physical therapist provides a significant contribution. Controversies exist over the orthopedic management of dislocated hips, scoliosis, and kyphosis.

A study of the efficacy of two techniques of spinal instrumentation on patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis was performed. Twenty consecutive patients treated with a single Harrington distraction rod and sublaminar wiring (H-SL) were compared with 20 consecutive patients treated with a single Harrington distraction and spinous process wiring (H-SP). The patients in both groups were similar in age, curve magnitude, curve flexibility, and curve type. The immediate postoperative correction (61% H-SL, 58% H-SP) and follow-up correction (50% H-SL, 49% H-SP) were equivalent. No pseudarthroses were recognized in either group. One patient with H-SL had transient postoperative paresthesias.

Radiographs and bone scans of 40 young athletes with low back pain were reviewed retrospectively to correlate the imaging findings and assess the value of scintigraphy in the diagnosis of these patients. The radiographs were positive for spondylolysis with or without spondylolisthesis in 15 (38%), and scintigraphy showed focal disease in the posterior vertebral elements in 14 (35%). Five patients had positive radiographic studies but normal scans, indicating old injuries; four patients had positive scintigrams but normal radiographs, suggesting early or active injuries. The authors use radiography as the initial examination in the evaluation of patients with low back pain. Scintigraphy is most useful in early stages, when radiographs may be normal; and in cases in which the age and activity of a radiologic abnormality cannot otherwise be accurately determined before therapy.

Two cases of intra-articular median nerve entrapment after reduction of elbow dislocations in children are described. The diagnosis of median nerve entrapment is often delayed. A proximal median nerve deficit, limited passive elbow motion, and an associated medial epicondyle avulsion after reduction of a child's posterior elbow dislocation should alert the surgeon to the possibility of nerve entrapment. Optimal management of this problem consists of early surgical exploration and nerve release.

The most common form of scoliosis (lateral curvature of the spine) is adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS). The prevalence of AIS is 10-20 individuals per 1,000 population screened. Progressive AIS affects females more frequently than males. Only 1-2 per 1,000 individuals have progressive AIS and need brace or surgical treatment. Early screening programs for scoliosis and other spinal deformities are instituted in schools in the fifth to ninth grades to achieve early detection of progressive AIS. If detected early, progressive AIS can in most cases be successfully treated by use of an external spinal brace. More severe scoliosis is successfully treated with surgical instrumentation and spinal fusion. Although much progress has been made in understanding the natural history of AIS, its cause remains unknown.

Combine anterior and posterior fusion provides and maintains good correction in patients with Scheuermann's kyphosis. A fusion which includes the entire deformity, especially at lower end, is a requisite for a satisfactory result. Intervening halofemoral traction may not improve results. Pulmonary functions may decrease somewhat postoperatively but, in the large majority of cases, still remain within normal limits. We think that anterior and posterior fusion remains the procedure of choice in severe or rigid Scheuermann's kyphosis.