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Case presentation: However, after four days, the patient's HSE diagnosis was confirmed by the detection of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV1) via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing. This case highlights the importance of utilizing multiple diagnostic aids and not solely relying on initial test results, as infections may not appear in CSF analysis or MRI scans initially. Furthermore, this case also emphasizes the necessity of initiating empirical treatment based on clinical signs and symptoms, even in cases where diagnostic tests initially appear negative. Prompt and efficient diagnosis and treatment are crucial in managing HSE and preventing long-term neurological damage., Conclusion: This case of HSE underscores the significance of a multifaceted diagnostic approach and timely intervention in managing this potentially severe and life-threatening condition. As mentioned, sometimes the infection does not appear in CSF analysis initially, nor does its effects appear in MRI. HSV PCR remains the golden test to confirm the diagnosis of HSE.

Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is an acute form of encephalitis that can lead to poor neurological outcomes. Although the exact pathogenesis of HSE remains elusive, recent reports suggest a significant role for postinfectious immune-inflammatory processes in the central nervous system (CNS). This study aimed to clarify the association between CNS autoimmune responses and clinical presentation in patients with HSE, focusing on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) characteristics, particularly the IgG index. We retrospectively analyzed 176 consecutive patients suspected of having aseptic meningitis /encephalitis for chronological changes in CSF findings and clinical presentations. These patients underwent PCR screening for herpesviruses (HV) in their CSF. We identified seven patients positive for herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), 20 patients positive for varicella-zoster virus, and 17 patients who met the criteria for aseptic meningitis but were PCR-negative for HV. Patients in the HSV-1-positive group exhibited a significant increase in the IgG index at the time of PCR-negative conversion compared with on admission (p = 0.0156), while such a change was not observed in the other two groups. Additionally, all patients in the HSV-1-positive group tested negative for anti-neural autoantibodies in CSF and serum samples collected approximately 3 weeks after onset. This study, therefore, highlights that CSF IgG index elevation occurs even after PCR-confirmed HSV-1 clearance, which might indicate immunopathogenesis that is independent of antibody-mediated mechanisms., (© 2024 The Author(s). Journal of Medical Virology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Introduction: Identifying coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-related encephalitis without clear etiological evidence is clinically challenging. The distinctions between this condition and other prevalent encephalitis types remain unknown. Therefore, we aimed to explore the similarities and differences in the clinical characteristics of COVID-19-related encephalitis and other encephalitis types., Methods: Adult patients with encephalitis admitted to the neurology department at Xuanwu Hospital were enrolled and categorized into the following six groups based on the results of metagenomic next-generation sequencing and autoimmune antibody detection in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): COVID-19-related encephalitis (n = 36), herpes simplex virus type 1 encephalitis (HSV-1 encephalitis; n = 28), human herpesvirus 3 encephalitis (HHV-3 encephalitis; n = 10), NMDAR-antibody encephalitis (n = 18), LGI1-antibody encephalitis (n = 12), and GABAB-antibody encephalitis (n = 8)., Results: The predominant characteristics of COVID-19-related encephalitis include a low incidence of seizures (38.9%), cognitive defects (30.6%), and meningeal irritation signs (8.3%). Compared with HSV-1 and HHV-3 encephalitis, COVID-19-related encephalitis exhibited lower white blood cell count (2.5 count/mm 3 ), protein (32.2 mg/dL), and immunoglobulin M, G, and A levels (0.09, 3.2, and 0.46 mg/dL, respectively) in the CSF tests. Abnormal imaging findings were present in only 36.1% of COVID-19-related encephalitis cases, mostly showing diffuse inflammation scattered in various parts, which differed from HSV-1 encephalitis. Additionally, COVID-19-related encephalitis exhibited significant differences in clinical symptoms and CSF white blood cell counts compared with NMDAR-antibody encephalitis; however, it showed limited differences compared with LGI1-antibody and GABAB-antibody encephalitis., Discussion: COVID-19-related encephalitis and herpes virus or autoimmune encephalitis differ clinically. Symptoms and auxiliary examinations can be used as distinguishing tools., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Objectives: To determine whether diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) can help to distinguish early stage autoimmune (AI) and herpes simplex virus (HSV) encephalitides., Methods: This case-control study included patients from a multi-center cohort of AI encephalitides whose initial MRI including DWI was performed within ten days after symptoms onset. They were compared with patients with HSV encephalitis enrolled prospectively in a single-center from June, 2020 to December, 2020. The final diagnosis of AI encephalitis required a positive autoantibody assay, and that of HSV encephalitis required a positive HSV polymerase chain reaction based on cerebrospinal fluid. Brain MRI were evaluated for restricted diffusion, fluid-inversion recovery (FLAIR) abnormalities, lesion topography, hemorrhagic changes, and contrast enhancement., Results: Forty-nine patients were included of which, 19 (38.8%) had AI encephalitis. Twenty-seven patients (55.1%) were males and the median age was 46.0 years (interquartile range (IQR):[22.0; 65.0]). Brain MRI were performed after a median of 4 days (IQR:[2.0; 7.0]) of symptom onset and time between symptom onset and MRI was not significantly different (p = 0.60). Twenty-six patients had restricted diffusion lesions in the medial temporal lobe, including 25/30 in the HSV encephalitis group (p < 0.001). FLAIR abnormalities were observed in 36 patients, including 29/30 in the HSV encephalitis group (p < 0.001). Lesion topography, hemorrhagic changes, and contrast enhancement did not differ significantly between the two groups., Conclusion: Our results suggest that restricted diffusion lesions in the medial temporal lobe are a hallmark of HSV encephalitis and may help distinguish it from early-stage AI encephalitis., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Patients with COVID-19 can have a variety of neurological symptoms, but the active involvement of central nervous system (CNS) in COVID-19 remains unclear. While routine cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analyses in patients with neurological manifestations of COVID-19 generally show no or only mild inflammation, more detailed data on inflammatory mediators in the CSF of patients with COVID-19 are scarce. We studied the inflammatory response in paired CSF and serum samples of patients with COVID-19 (n = 38). Patients with herpes simplex virus encephalitis (HSVE, n = 10) and patients with non-inflammatory, non-neurodegenerative neurological diseases (n = 28) served as controls. We used proteomics, enzyme-linked immunoassays, and semiquantitative cytokine arrays to characterize inflammatory proteins. Autoantibody screening was performed with cell-based assays and native tissue staining. RNA sequencing of long-non-coding RNA and circular RNA was done to study the transcriptome. Proteomics on single protein level and subsequent pathway analysis showed similar yet strongly attenuated inflammatory changes in the CSF of COVID-19 patients compared to HSVE patients with, e.g., downregulation of the apolipoproteins and extracellular matrix proteins. Protein upregulation of the complement system, the serpin proteins pathways, and other proteins including glycoproteins alpha-2 and alpha-1 acid. Importantly, calculation of interleukin-6, interleukin-16, and CXCL10 CSF/serum indices suggest that these inflammatory mediators reach the CSF from the systemic circulation, rather than being produced within the CNS. Antibody screening revealed no pathological levels of known neuronal autoantibodies. When stratifying COVID-19 patients into those with and without bacterial superinfection as indicated by elevated procalcitonin levels, inflammatory markers were significantly (p < 0.01) higher in those with bacterial superinfection. RNA sequencing in the CSF revealed 101 linear RNAs comprising messenger RNAs, and two circRNAs being significantly differentially expressed in COVID-19 than in non-neuroinflammatory controls and neurodegenerative patients. Our findings may explain the absence of signs of intrathecal inflammation upon routine CSF testing despite the presence of SARS-CoV2 infection-associated neurological symptoms. The relevance of blood-derived mediators of inflammation in the CSF for neurological COVID-19 and post-COVID-19 symptoms deserves further investigation., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

The objective of this research was to analyze the MRI changes and the expression of neuron-specific enolase (NSE) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients with severe herpes simplex encephalitis. For this purpose, 68 patients with severe herpes simplex virus encephalitis diagnosed and treated in our hospital from April 2020 to April 2021 were selected as the study objects of the study group. In addition, 68 healthy people who underwent normal physical examinations in our hospital were selected as the control group at the same time. They were examined by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) within one week after the study group was enrolled. CSF samples were collected one week after the onset of the disease in the study group and 2-4 days after the first spinal anesthesia in the control group, Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELIEA) was used to detect the expression of NSE and MCP-1 in cerebrospinal fluid of the two groups, and the linear correlation between NSE and MCP-1 were analyzed. Results showed that compared with the control group, the expression of NSE and MCP-1 in the cerebrospinal fluid of the study group increased significantly (P<0.05). The expression of NSE and MCP-1 in patients with severe herpes simplex encephalitis in a coma was significantly higher than that in patients without severe herpes simplex encephalitis in a coma (P<0.05). NSE and MCP-1 were positively correlated (r=0.597, P=0.001). NSE and MCP-1 were risk factors for severe herpes simplex encephalitis, and the difference was statistically significant (P<0.05). In conclusion, magnetic resonance imaging of patients with severe herpes simplex encephalitis is characterized by multiple lesions in the temporal lobe, insula, and frontal lobe base (especially the marginal system involved) with unilateral or bilateral asymmetric distribution, and abnormal high expression of NSE and MCP-1 in the cerebrospinal fluid of such patients, which has important value in the early diagnosis of this disease.

Aim: Herpes simplex CNS infection is a rare but important cause of neurological disability. Long term outcomes after HSV CNS infection in Australia have not yet been fully described. We sought to provide a comprehensive review of HSV CNS infection in children using a retrospective 13-year evaluation of statewide laboratory and clinical records and a parent survey conducted at least one year after the initial infection., Methods: All positive PCR HSV 1 and 2 results from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or brain tissue were obtained from Queensland pathology providers for children aged 0-16 years between 1 January 2005 and 31 December 2017. Clinical data were obtained from patient records and longer-term outcomes via parent survey at least 1 year after initial infection., Results: Forty-three children were identified over the 13-year period, 17 (39.5%) neonates and 26 (60.4%) non-neonates. The annual incidence for HSV CNS infection in Queensland children aged ≤16 years was 0.3/100 000 (95% confidence intervals (CIs): 0.2-0.4) with neonates at highest risk (incidence 2.5/100 000 live births, 95% CI: 1.5-3.9). HSV 1 was the predominant serotype in both neonates and non-neonates (9/17, 52.9% neonates and 19/26, 73.1% non-neonates). Seven (16.3%) children died, five (5/17, 29.4% neonates), directly attributable to HSV CNS infection (all neonates). Twenty-five (58.1%) had neurological morbidity at discharge (9/17 neonates (52.9%) vs. 16/26 (61.5%) non-neonates) and 20/27 (74.1%) reported long-term neurological morbidity at follow-up (5/9 neonates (55.6%) vs. 15/18 non-neonates (83.3%)). Seven children (two neonates and four non-neonates) with long-term neurological sequelae had no neurological morbidity identified at discharge., Conclusion: Significant long-term neurologic sequelae were seen in children with HSV CNS infection even in children with no neurological disability identified at discharge from hospital. Careful neurodevelopmental follow-up of all children is recommended., (© 2022 The Authors. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Paediatrics and Child Health Division (The Royal Australasian College of Physicians).)

Central nervous system infections are a medical emergency, due to their high fatality and sequelae. Timely treatment is essential, and should be initially indicated empirically by clinical guidance, without microbiological certainty. Hence the importance of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis as an etiological and therapeutic guide in the crucial initial hours of management. We report a 57-year-old woman consulting for fever and altered mental status. A brain CAT scan was normal. A lumbar puncture disclosed a CSF with predominance of neutrophils. Suspecting a bacterial meningitis, antimicrobial treatment was started but 48 hours after, the patient did not improve. A new lumbar puncture disclosed a CSF with predominance of lymphocytes. The lymphocyte shift prompted a PCR that was positive for herpes virus. The patient was treated with acyclovir with a good evolution.

Encephalitis mediated by autoantibodies against neuronal antigens and herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) are seemingly separate causes of encephalopathy in adults. Autoimmune encephalitis (AE) is autoimmune in origin, and herpes simplex encephalitis is infectious. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) exosomes from patients with antibody-positive AE and HSE. Towards this, exosomes were isolated from CSF from 13 patients with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis, 11 patients with anti-gamma-aminobutyric acid-B (GABAB) receptor encephalitis, 9 patients with anti-leucine-rich glioma-inactivated 1 (LGI1) encephalitis, and 8 patients with anti-contactin-associated protein-like 2 (CASPR2) encephalitis, and 12 control individuals negative of antibodies against neuronal autoantigens. There were ten miRNAs highly expressed in patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis compared to those in control subjects. Eight miRNAs were found to be lower expressed in anti-NMDAR encephalitis CSF-derived exosomes. Furthermore, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways enriched by AE differential expressed exosomic miRNAs demonstrated that AE-related exosomic miRNAs may participate as a feedback regulation in cancer development. In addition, the exosome concentration in CSF of 9 HSE patients was significantly higher compared to those from 9 HSV( -) patients. This observation was consistent with the results that exosome concentration was found to be higher in the animal model which was inoculated intranasally with HSV-1 compared to controls. Furthermore, western blot demonstrated that the subunits of NMDAR, GABA B R, and AMPAR were detected highly expressed in exosomes derived from sera of HSV-1-treated animal model compared to controls. More importantly, exosomes isolated from CSF of HSE patients contained higher expression levels of two miRNAs encoded by HSV, miR-H2-3p, and miR-H4-3p compared to those from HSV( -) patients. In summary, HSV may trigger brain autoimmunity in HSE by presentation of surface autoantigens via exosomes., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Background and Objectives: The two most common autoimmune encephalitides (AE), N -methyl-D-Aspartate receptor (NMDAR) and Leucine-rich Glioma-Inactivated 1 (LGI1) encephalitis, have been known for more than a decade. Nevertheless, no well-established biomarkers to guide treatment or estimate prognosis exist. Neurofilament light chain (NfL) has become an unspecific screening marker of axonal damage in CNS diseases, and has proven useful as a diagnostic and disease activity marker in neuroinflammatory diseases. Only limited reports on NfL in AE exist. We investigated NfL levels at diagnosis and follow-up in NMDAR and LGI1-AE patients, and evaluated the utility of CSF-NfL as a biomarker in AE., Methods: Patients were included from the National Danish AE cohort (2009-present) and diagnosed based upon autoantibody positivity and diagnostic consensus criteria. CSF-NfL was analyzed by single molecule array technology. Clinical and diagnostic information was retrospectively evaluated and related to NfL levels at baseline and follow-up. NMDAR-AE patients were subdivided into: idiopathic/teratoma associated or secondary NMDAR-AE (post-viral or concomitant with malignancies/demyelinating disease)., Results: A total of 74 CSF samples from 53 AE patients (37 NMDAR and 16 LGI1 positive) were included in the study. Longitudinal CSF-NfL levels was measured in 21 patients. Median follow-up time was 23.8 and 43.9 months for NMDAR and LGI1-AE respectively. Major findings of this study are: i) CSF-NfL levels were higher in LGI1-AE than in idiopathic/teratoma associated NMDAR-AE at diagnosis; ii) CSF-NfL levels in NMDAR-AE patients distinguished idiopathic/teratoma cases from cases with other underlying etiologies (post-viral or malignancies/demyelinating diseases) and iii) Elevated CSF-NfL at diagnosis seems to be associated with worse long-term disease outcomes in both NMDAR and LGI1-AE., Discussion: CSF-NfL measurement may be beneficial as a prognostic biomarker in NMDAR and LGI1-AE, and high CSF-NfL could foster search for underlying etiologies in NMDAR-AE. Further studies on larger cohorts, using standardized methods, are warranted., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Nissen, Ryding, Nilsson, Madsen, Olsen, Halekoh, Lydolph, Illes and Blaabjerg.)

Objective: To determine whether the metabolites of Kynurenine pathway (KP) could serve as biomarkers for distinguishing between viral CNS infections and autoimmune neuroinflammatory diseases, especially anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis (NMDARE) and herpes virus encephalitis (HSE)., Methods: This study enrolled CSF samples from 76 patients with viral CNS infections, autoimmune neuroinflammatory, and non-inflammatory neurological diseases. We measured cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) concentrations of tryptophan (Trp) and kynurenine (Kyn) by ELISA., Results: Kyn concentrations and Kyn/Trp ratios were highly increased (p < 0.001, viral vs. autoimmune) in viral CNS infections, whereas patients with autoimmune neuroinflammatory and non-inflammatory diseases exhibited low concentrations. Furthermore, Kyn concentrations and Kyn/Trp ratio turned out to be excellent biomarkers to distinguish between herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) and NMDARE (AUC 0.920 and AUC 0.906), whereas Trp concentrations were similar in all three groups., Interpretation: The results suggest that elevated CSF Kyn concentrations and Kyn/Trp ratio may serve as biomarkers for distinguishing viral CNS infections from autoimmune neuroinflammatory diseases. In particular, the distinction between HSE and NMDARE is of great clinical relevance. Further studies are warranted to investigate the potential of CSF Kyn levels and Kyn/Trp ratio as routine parameters in patients with CNS diseases., (© 2021 The Authors. Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Neurological Association.)

Objectives: The aim was to investigate the correlation between biomarkers of brain injury and long-term neurocognitive outcome, and the interplay with intrathecal inflammation and neuronal autoimmunity, in patients with herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE)., Methods: A total of 53 adult/adolescent HSE patients were included from a prospective cohort in a randomized placebo-controlled trial investigating the effect of a 3-month follow-up treatment with valaciclovir. Study subjects underwent repeated serum/cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) sampling and brain magnetic resonance imaging in the first 3 months along with cognitive assessment using the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale (MDRS) at 24 months. CSF samples were analysed for biomarkers of brain injury, inflammation and synaptic autoimmunity. The predefined primary analysis was the correlation between peak CSF neurofilament protein (NFL), a biomarker of neuronal damage, and MDRS at 24 months., Results: Impaired cognitive performance significantly correlated with NFL levels (rho = -0.36, p = 0.020). Development of IgG anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NDMAR) antibodies was associated with a broad and prolonged proinflammatory CSF response. In a linear regression model, lower MDRS at 24 months was associated with previous development of IgG anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) (beta = -0.6249, p = 0.024) and age (z-score beta = -0.2784, p = 0.024), but not CSF NFL, which however significantly correlated with subsequent NMDAR autoimmunization (p = 0.006)., Discussion: Our findings show that NFL levels are predictive of long-term neurocognitive outcome in HSE, and suggest a causative chain of events where brain tissue damage increases the risk of NMDAR autoimmunisation and subsequent prolongation of CSF inflammation. The data provides guidance for a future intervention study of immunosuppressive therapy administered in the recovery phase of HSE., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Background: Infectious encephalitis represents a rare but potentially severe clinical condition. However, limited international data are available in pediatric age., Methods: We conducted a retrospective study to review (a) the clinical presentation; (b) laboratory, radiology, and neurophysiology findings; (c) the correlations between these exams and outcome; and (d) the therapy performed., Results: Fifty-six patients were enrolled [22 female (39.6%), mean age 4.7 years, IQR 0.7-8.7 years], 19.6% presented neurologic sequelae. HSV was the single most frequently isolated pathogen (19.6%), although in most cases, the etiology remained undefined. 41.1% children presented prodromal before the development of neurologic signs. Fever was the most frequent constitutional symptom (83.9% of cases). Cerebrospinal fluid was normal in 48.5% of cases and electroencephalograpy in 24.5% cases. Brain computed tomography scans was normal in 33 (91.7%) cases, while cerebral magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed pathologic findings in 62.5% of cases. MRI was the only parameter associated with neurologic sequalae [P = 0.01; OR, 8.1 (95% CI: 1.52-42.84)]., Conclusions: Pediatric encephalitis is a heterogeneous entity with nonspecific clinical and laboratory findings, with undefined etiologies in most times. MRI can play a primary role, both on a diagnostic and prognostic point-of-view, and its role should be implemented and made more accessible. Further studies are needed to define the exact role and timing of steroids., Competing Interests: The authors have no funding or conflicts of interest to disclose., (Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based testing of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples has greatly facilitated the diagnosis of central nervous system (CNS) infections. However, the clinical significance of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) DNA in CSF of individuals with suspected CNS infection remains unclear. We wanted to gain a better understanding of EBV as an infectious agent in immunocompetent patients with CNS disorders., Methods: We identified cases of EBV-associated CNS infections and reviewed their clinical and laboratory characteristics. The study population was drawn from patients with EBV PCR positivity in CSF who visited Pusan National University Hospital between 2010 and 2019., Results: Of the 780 CSF samples examined during the 10-year study period, 42 (5.4 %) were positive for EBV DNA; 9 of the patients (21.4 %) were diagnosed with non-CNS infectious diseases, such as optic neuritis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, and idiopathic intracranial hypotension, and the other 33 cases were classified as CNS infections (22 as encephalitis and 11 as meningitis). Intensive care unit admission (13/33 patients, 39.3 %) and presence of severe neurological sequelae at discharge (8/33 patients, 24.2 %) were relatively frequent. In 10 patients (30.3 %), the following pathogens were detected in CSF in addition to EBV: varicella-zoster virus (n = 3), cytomegalovirus (n = 2), herpes simplex virus 1 (n = 1), herpes simplex virus 2 (n = 1), Streptococcus pneumomiae (n = 2), and Enterococcus faecalis (n = 1). The EBV-only group (n = 23) and the co-infection group (n = 10) did not differ in age, gender, laboratory data, results of brain imaging studies, clinical manifestations, or prognosis; however, the co-infected patients had higher CSF protein levels., Conclusion: EBV DNA in CSF is occasionally found in the immunocompetent population; the virus was commonly associated with encephalitis and poor prognosis, and frequently found together with other microbes in CSF., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Following implementation of the FilmArray meningitis and encephalitis panel, which enables rapid syndromic cerebrospinal fluid testing, HSV testing doubled in children >60 days with suspected central nervous system infection at Children's Hospital Colorado. Acyclovir initiation was unchanged, but duration decreased. Diagnostic and antimicrobial stewardship is needed for MEP optimization., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: To determine the association of the use of the multiplex assay meningitis/encephalitis panel with clinical management of suspected meningitis., Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with children 0 to 18 years of age who received a lumbar puncture within 48 hours of admission for an infectious workup. Patient demographic and presenting information, laboratory studies, and medication administration were collected. The primary measure was length of stay (LOS) with secondary measures: time on antibiotics, time to narrowing antibiotics, and acyclovir doses. LOS and antibiotic times were stratified for outcomes occurring before 36 hours. Logistic regression analysis was used to account for potential confounding factors associated with both the primary and secondary outcomes. A value of P < .05 was considered statistically significant., Results: Meningitis panel use was associated with a higher likelihood of a patient LOS <36 hours ( P = .04; odds ratio = 1.7; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.03-2.87), a time to narrowing antibiotics <36 hours ( P = .008; odds ratio = 1.89; 95% CI: 1.18-2.87), and doses of acyclovir ( P < .001; incidence rate ratio = 0.37; 95% CI: 0.26-0.53). When controlling for potential confounding factors, these associations persisted., Conclusions: Use of the meningitis panel was associated with a decreased LOS, time to narrowing of antibiotics, and fewer acyclovir doses. This likely is a result of the rapid turnaround time as compared with cerebrospinal fluid cultures. Additional studies to examine the outcomes related to this change in management are warranted., Competing Interests: POTENTIAL CONFLICT OF INTEREST: The authors have indicated they have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose., (Copyright © 2019 by the American Academy of Pediatrics.)

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) encephalitis affects 2-4 people per million/year. Immunocompomised patients can have atypical presentations of HSV encephalitis, including a lack of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pleocytosis. We present the case of a patient who was receiving ustekinumab therapy for psoriasis which inhibits interleukin (IL)-12 and IL-23 signalling pathways. The initial presentation was suggestive of encephalitis, but he was discharged prior to the reporting of HSV positivity due to the lack of CSF pleocytosis. On representation, he had worsening symptoms and imaging showed midline shift, indicating cerebral oedema despite the immunosupressant effects of ustekinumab. He required intensive care unit support and treatment with high dose aciclovir and dexamethasone; after a month of treatment he made a good recovery. This case is the first to report a link between ustekinumab and HSV encephalitis, and also emphasises that imunocompromised patients can lack CSF pleocytosis and develop significant cerebral oedema which responds to immune suppression., Competing Interests: Competing interests: BDM reports grants from National Institute of Heath Research, grants from Welcome Trust, grants from Academy of Medical Sciences, grants from British Medical Association, grants from British Infection Association, outside the submitted work. NS reports personal fees from Novatis, personal fees from Eli Lilly, personal fees from Teva, personal fees from Allergan, personal fees from Electrocore, outside the submitted work., (© BMJ Publishing Group Limited 2019. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

A 75-year-old woman presented with new onset of confusion, intense episodic dizziness and formed visual hallucinations. Herpes simplex encephalitis and non-convulsive temporal lobe seizures were confirmed with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and electroencephalography testing. In addition, her hospital course was complicated by syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion and atonic bladder contributing to an episode of urinary tract infection. After completing 3 weeks of acyclovir treatment, the patient became obtunded with right arm choreiform movements and persistent inflammatory CSF findings not attributable to persistent herpes simplex virus infection or other confounding factors. The patient responded to steroid treatment. Repeated autoimmune and paraneoplastic evaluations were negative. Both clinical (cognitive testing and atonic bladder) and CSF inflammatory finding improved in the follow-up period., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© BMJ Publishing Group Limited 2019. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Purpose: Herpes simplex virus (HSV) encephalitis continues to be the most common form of sporadic lethal encephalitis worldwide. The wide spectrum of clinical presentations and laboratory findings often poses a diagnostic challenge for physicians which might delay administration of life-saving therapy with acyclovir. Atypical presentations of HSV encephalitis have become increasingly prevalent with better diagnostic techniques and have not been well studied., Methods: We retrospectively evaluated all consecutive PCR-proven HSV encephalitis cases treated at the Hospital of the Ludwig-Maximilians-University in Munich, Germany from January 1, 2013 to February 28, 2018., Results: We included 18 patients with PCR-proven HSV encephalitis. The most common clinical features were altered mental status (77.8%), focal neurologic deficits (72.2%) and fever (72.2%). Remarkably, four of these patients (22.2%) had a normocellular cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) on admission. Electroencephalography and magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities were highly sensitive for HSV encephalitis independent of CSF cell count. Striking atypical findings on MRI were extensive global brain swelling and severe brainstem involvement in single patients. Of note, initial CT scans were normal in 11 out of 16 patients (68.8%). All patients were treated with acyclovir. Three patients still developed a clinical deterioration under therapy with acyclovir with one patient requiring decompressive craniotomy due to bilateral space-occupying temporal lobe hemorrhage. 94.4% of the patients survived but only 38.9% were discharged with a good clinical outcome (Glasgow Outcome Score = 5)., Conclusion: Atypical presentations of HSV encephalitis seem to be more common than previously thought and physicians should apply a high level of clinical suspicion and a low threshold to initiate life-saving acyclovir therapy in suspected cases.

Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is a common cause of viral encephalitis (HSV-1) characterised by pronounced inflammation and elevated intracranial pressure. We have shown in a rat model that HSV-1 infection causes an interaction between complement factors and proteasomes, leading to formation of proteasome/complement complexes (compleasomes). Exposure of the proteasome regulatory subunit antisecretory factor 1 (AF1) leads to a decrease in intracranial pressure. The aim of this study was to evaluate the acute and prolonged formation of compleasomes in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients with HSE. Cerebrospinal fluid samples (n = 55) from 24 HSE patients were analysed for compleasome complexes. Samples from healthy controls (n = 23) and patient controls (n = 27) served as baseline information. Sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for proteasomes and their complex formation with complement factor 3 or 4, and Western blot for C3 activation were performed on CSF samples. Increased compleasome formation, both presenting as an initial formation and showing exposure of subunit AF1 in the compleasomes, was found in CSF samples drawn from patients with HSE compared with samples from the control groups (p < 0.0005). The total protein CSF concentration was equal in all groups. The levels were higher in the acute phase compared with late in the disease course (p < 0.0005). Complement 3 breakdown product iC3b was detected in CSF samples of the HSE patients. The early increased formation of compleasomes in CSF suggests that this complex may be involved in host defence against HSE.

Background: Herpes Simplex Virus encephalitis (HSVE) is a devastating disease of all ages. Rigorous studies correlating viral load with neuroradiological and clinical severity have not been performed, particularly in neonates. Understanding these relationships may improve therapies., Objectives: To correlate molecularly quantified HSV in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and disease severity., Study Design: HSV loads (VL) were evaluated by real-time PCR from the CSF of 33 patients (20 neonates, 5 children, 8 adults) with HSVE. We studied relationships between CSF VL and structural and volumetric brain abnormalities (MRI); hospital morbidity; and discharge and long-term (>3 month) clinical outcomes., Results: Initial CSF VL did not differ in neonates vs non-neonates (median 4.6 vs 5.1 log10 copies/mL, p = 0.75). Initial CSF VL was higher in neonates with HSV-2 vs HSV-1 (median 4.8 vs 3.2 log10 copies/mL, respectively, p = 0.02). Persistently detectable DNA in CSF despite acyclovir trended towards higher odds of unfavorable outcome at discharge for neonates [0.87 (CI 0.75-1), p = 0.07]. Initial VL correlated with higher CSF protein concentrations for the cohort and for neonates (p = 0.03 and 0.01, respectively), but not with lesion volume or subarachnoid exposure of involved brain (p all >0.05), hospital morbidity (p all >0.05), nor with higher odds of unfavorable discharge or long-term outcomes for the cohort [OR = 0.9(CI 0.5-1.6), p = 0.72; OR = 1.0(CI 0.5-1.8), p = 0.9] or for neonates [OR = 1.3(CI 0.5-3.3), p = 0.57; OR = 2.3(CI 0.7-8), p = 0.2]., Conclusions: Initial HSV VL did not predict neuroradiological or clinical outcomes in patients with HSVE, suggesting host inflammatory factors contribute to disease in treated patients with good viral clearance., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Herpes simplex encephalitis can trigger autoimmune encephalitis that leads to neurological worsening. We aimed to assess the frequency, symptoms, risk factors, and outcomes of this complication., Methods: We did a prospective observational study and retrospective analysis. In the prospective observational part of this study, we included patients with herpes simplex encephalitis diagnosed by neurologists, paediatricians, or infectious disease specialists in 19 secondary and tertiary Spanish centres (Cohort A). Outpatient follow-up was at 2, 6, and 12 months from onset of herpes simplex encephalitis. We studied another group of patients retrospectively, when they developed autoimmune encephalitis after herpes simplex encephalitis (Cohort B). We compared demographics and clinical features of patients who developed autoimmune encephalitis with those who did not, and in patients who developed autoimmune encephalitis we compared these features by age group (patients ≤4 years compared with patients >4 years). We also used multivariable binary logistic regression models to assess risk factors for autoimmune encephalitis after herpes simplex encephalitis., Findings: Between Jan 1, 2014, and Oct 31, 2017, 54 patients with herpes simplex encephalitis were recruited to Cohort A, and 51 were included in the analysis (median age 50 years [IQR 5-68]). At onset of herpes simplex encephalitis, none of the 51 patients had antibodies to neuronal antigens; during follow-up, 14 (27%) patients developed autoimmune encephalitis and all 14 (100%) had neuronal antibodies (nine [64%] had NMDA receptor [NMDAR] antibodies and five [36%] had other antibodies) at or before onset of symptoms. The other 37 patients did not develop autoimmune encephalitis, although 11 (30%) developed antibodies (n=3 to NMDAR, n=8 to unknown antigens; p<0·001). Antibody detection within 3 weeks of herpes simplex encephalitis was a risk factor for autoimmune encephalitis (odds ratio [OR] 11·5, 95% CI 2·7-48·8; p<0·001). Between Oct 7, 2011, and Oct 31, 2017, there were 48 patients in Cohort B with new-onset or worsening neurological symptoms not caused by herpes simplex virus reactivation (median age 8·8 years [IQR 1·1-44·2]; n=27 male); 44 (92%) patients had antibody-confirmed autoimmune encephalitis (34 had NMDAR antibodies and ten had other antibodies). In both cohorts (n=58 patients with antibody-confirmed autoimmune encephalitis), patients older than 4 years frequently presented with psychosis (18 [58%] of 31; younger children not assessable). Compared with patients older than 4 years, patients aged 4 years or younger (n=27) were more likely to have shorter intervals between onset of herpes simplex encephalitis and onset of autoimmune encephalitis (median 26 days [IQR 24-32] vs 43 days [25-54]; p=0·0073), choreoathetosis (27 [100%] of 27 vs 0 of 31; p<0·001), decreased level of consciousness (26 [96%] of 27 vs seven [23%] of 31; p<0·001), NMDAR antibodies (24 [89%] of 27 vs 19 [61%] of 31; p=0·033), and worse outcome at 1 year (median modified Rankin Scale 4 [IQR 4-4] vs 2 [2-3]; p<0·0010; seizures 12 [63%] of 19 vs three [13%] of 23; p=0·001)., Interpretation: The results of our prospective study show that autoimmune encephalitis occurred in 27% of patients with herpes simplex encephalitis. It was associated with development of neuronal antibodies and usually presented within 2 months after treatment of herpes simplex encephalitis; the symptoms were age-dependent, and the neurological outcome was worse in young children. Prompt diagnosis is important because patients, primarily those older than 4 years, can respond to immunotherapy., Funding: Mutua Madrileña Foundation, Fondation de l'Université de Lausanne et Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Instituto Carlos III, CIBERER, National Institutes of Health, Generalitat de Catalunya, Fundació CELLEX., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

We compared the clinical course of neonates with persistence of herpes simplex virus (HSV) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) after 21 days of treatment with high-dose acyclovir to that of neonates with clearance of the CSF after 21 days of therapy. Neonates with persistence of HSV DNA had a more severe clinical course with worse neurodevelopmental outcomes.

A 3-year-old girl suffered from anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate (anti-NMDA) receptor encephalitis after resolution of herpes simplex virus encephalitis (HSE). Methylprednisolone pulse and immunoglobulin therapies showed little effect, but the patient completely recovered after six courses of monthly cyclophosphamide pulse therapy and successive maintenance on mycophenolate mofetil for one year. Anti-NMDA receptor antibody in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was minimally detected during the prodromal febrile period and then was seen to be markedly elevated at the onset of second encephalopathy phase. CSF interleukin (IL)-6, and 10, tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon gamma, C-X-C motif ligands (CXCL)10 and 13, chemokine ligand 2, and migration inhibitory factor showed a second peak during the prodromal period and were reduced at the onset of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. These suggest the presence of cytokine/chemokine phase between the initial HSE and the secondary autoimmune encephalitis phases. Treatment strategy during the early stage of this entity should be further explored., (Copyright © 2017 The Japanese Society of Child Neurology. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

We treated 437 cases of adult aseptic meningitis and 12 cases (including 2 recurrent patients; age, 31.8 ± 8.9 years; 7 females) of herpes simplex meningitis from 2004 to 2016. The incidence rate of adult herpes simplex meningitis in the cases with aseptic meningitis was 2.7%. One patient was admitted during treatment of genital herpes, but no association was observed between genital herpes and herpes simplex meningitis in the other cases. The diagnoses were confirmed in all cases as the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was positive for herpes simplex virus (HSV)-DNA. For diagnosis confirmation, the DNA test was useful after 2-7 days following initial disease onset. Among other types of aseptic meningitis, the patients with herpes simplex meningitis showed relatively high white blood cell counts and relatively high CSF protein and high CSF cell counts. CSF cells showed mononuclear cell dominance from the initial stage of the disease. During same period, we also experienced 12 cases of herpes simplex encephalitis and 21 cases of non-hepatic acute limbic encephalitis. Notably, the patients with herpes simplex meningitis were younger and their CSF protein and cells counts were higher than those of the patients with herpes simplex encephalitis.

Aim: To examine the cytokine/chemokine profile of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) during acute herpes simplex virus-induced N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) autoimmunity and in chronic/relapsing post-herpes simplex virus encephalitis (HSE) neurological syndromes., Method: We measured longitudinal serial CSF cyto-/chemokines (n=34) and a glial marker (calcium-binding astroglial protein, S100B) in one patient during acute HSE and subsequent anti-NMDAR encephalitis, and compared the results with those from two patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis without preceding HSE. We also compared cyto-/chemokines in cross-sectional CSF samples from three children with previous HSE who had ongoing chronic or relapsing neurological symptoms (2yr 9 mo-16y after HSE) with those in a group of children having non-inflammatory neurological conditions (n=20)., Results: Acute HSE showed elevation of a broad range of all T-helper-subset-related cyto-/chemokines and S100B whereas the post-HSE anti-NMDAR encephalitis phase showed persistent elevation of two of five T-helper-1 (chemokine [C-X-C motif] ligand 9 [CXCL9], CXCL10), three of five predominantly B-cell (CXCL13, CCL19, a proliferation-inducing ligand [APRIL])-mediated cyto-/chemokines, and interferon-α. The post-HSE anti-NMDAR encephalitis inflammatory response was more pronounced than anti-NMDAR encephalitis. All three chronic post-HSE cases showed persistent elevation of CXCL9, CXCL10, and interferon-α, and there was histopathological evidence of chronic lymphocytic inflammation in one biopsied case 7 years after HSE. Two of three chronic cases showed a modest response to immune therapy., Interpretation: HSE-induced anti-NMDAR encephalitis is a complex and pronounced inflammatory syndrome. There is persistent CSF upregulation of cyto-/chemokines in chronic or relapsing post-HSE neurological symptoms, which may be modifiable with immune therapy. The elevated cyto-/chemokines may be targets of monoclonal therapies., (© 2017 Mac Keith Press.)

A 73-year-old woman presented with sudden onset of right hemiparesis and was diagnosed as having cerebral infarction on the basis of diffusion-weighted brain MRI, which demonstrated lesions in the left parietal cortex. On the 3rd day, the patient developed right upper limb myoclonus, aphasia, and disturbance of consciousness with high fever. On the 6th day, she was transferred to our hospital with suspected viral encephalitis, and treatment with acyclovir was started. By the 6th day, the lesions detected by MRI had expanded to the gyrus cinguli, insula and thalamus, but not to the temporal lobe. At that time, the CSF cell count was 8/μl, and this later increased to 17/μl by the 13th day. Although herpes simplex virus DNA was detected in the CSF on the 6th day, there was no evidence of CSF pleocytosis or temporal lobe abnormalities demonstrable by brain MRI throughout the whole follow-up period. This was very atypical case of herpes simplex encephalitis characterized by a stroke-like episode, atypical MRI findings, and absence of cerebrospinal fluid pleocytosis. It is important to be mindful that herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) can have an atypical presentation, and that sufficient acyclovir treatment should be initiated until HSE can be ruled out.

Background: The closely related herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2 can cause inflammations of the central nervous system (CNS), where type 1 most often manifest as encephalitis (HSE), and type 2 as meningitis (HSM). HSE is associated with severe neurological complications, while HSM is benign in adults. We proposed that studying the chemokine and cytokine production in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum could indicate why two closely related viruses exhibit different severity of their accompanied CNS inflammation., Methods: Secretion patterns of 30 chemokines and 10 cytokines in CSF of adult patients with acute HSE (n = 14) and HSM (n = 20) in the initial stage of disease were analyzed and compared to control subjects without viral central nervous system infections and to levels in serum., Results: Most measured chemokines and cytokines increased in CSF of HSE and HSM patients. Overall, the CSF chemokine levels were higher in CSF of HSM patients compared to HSE patients. However, only five chemokines reached levels in the CSF that exceeded those in serum facilitating a positive CSF-serum chemokine gradient. Of these, CXCL8, CXCL9, and CXCL10 were present at high levels both in HSE and HSM whereas CXCL11 and CCL8 were present in HSM alone. Several chemokines were also elevated in serum of HSE patients but only one in HSM patients. No chemokine in- or efflux between CSF and serum was indicated as the levels of chemokines in CSF and serum did not correlate., Conclusions: We show that HSM is associated with a stronger and more diverse inflammatory response in the CNS compared to HSE in the initial stage of disease. The chemokine patterns were distinguished by the exclusive local CNS production of CXCL11 and CCL8 in HSM. Inflammation in HSM appears to be restricted to the CNS whereas HSE also was associated with systemic inflammation.

Purpose: A 2012 report and subsequent case series described anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antibodies in patients during the acute phase and relapse of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV1) encephalitis (HSV1E). However, the prevalence of this phenomenon is unknown and systematic studies on other viral infections of the nervous system are missing., Materials and Methods: We retrospectively analyzed serial cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum samples of consecutive patients treated for neurological HSV1, HSV2 and varicella zoster virus (VZV) infections in our tertiary care university hospital between 2003 and 2013 for the presence of antibodies directed against the NR1a subunit of the NMDAR using indirect immunofluorescence., Results: In total, 88 patients with the following infections were identified through an electronic database search: HSV1 (24 with encephalitis), HSV2 (6 with meningitis, 3 with encephalitis and 1 with myelitis), or VZV (3 with meningitis, 33 with encephalitis, 17 with radiculitis and 1 with myelitis). Two patients with HSV1E and HSV2E, respectively, experienced a clinical relapse. Clinical follow-up was for up to 85 months, and repetitive serum and CSF analyses for up to 43 months. However, at no time did any of the 88 patients exhibit anti-NMDAR NR1a antibodies., Conclusions: In this study, we did not detect anti-NMDAR NR1a antibodies in serial CSF and serum samples of HSV1E patients or patients with other viral infections (HSV2 and VZV). However, the presence of antibodies directed against other epitopes of the NMDAR and other neuronal cell surface antigens cannot be excluded, necessitating further studies.

Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) can be complicated by adverse events in the acute phase. We herein present the case of a 71-year-old woman with HSE complicated by cerebral hemorrhage. She presented with acute deterioration of consciousness and fever and was diagnosed with HSE based on the detection of herpes simplex virus-1 in the cerebrospinal fluid by a polymerase chain reaction. The cerebral hemorrhage developed during acyclovir therapy; however, its diagnosis was delayed for 2 days. After the conservative treatment of the cerebral hemorrhage, the patient made a near-complete recovery. Cerebral hemorrhage should be considered as an acute-phase complication of HSE.

The early diagnosis of herpes simplex virus encephalitis (HSVE) enables induction of antiviral therapy in this potentially life-threatening disease. The study aimed to determine clinical findings including cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) data and MRI imaging in HSVE patients and to identify features distinguishing HSVE from encephalitis of other viral etiologies. We retrospectively reviewed consecutive patients who were diagnosed with viral encephalitis between 2000 and 2014 at the University Hospital Halle. Forty-nine patients with viral encephalitis were identified. A viral etiology could be confirmed by PCR or antibody testing in 22/49 (44.9 %) of patients (15 (30.6 %) HSV, 5 (10.2 %) VZV, 2 (4.1 %) EBV). In HSVE, typical findings were focal slowing in electroencephalophy (EEG) (80 %, p = 0.021) and presence of cortical (86.7 %, p = 0.030) lesions in MRI. Restricted diffusion was particularly helpful in detection of early signal abnormalities in HSVE (p = 0.014). In 27/49 (55.1 %) of patients, no causative agent could be elucidated. In these patients, 15/27 (55.6 %) experienced a rather "benign" disease course with no MRI pathology despite initially HSVE mimicking clinical picture. However, CSF was significantly different showing a higher amount of granulocytes and activated lymphocytes. The remaining 12/27 (44.4 %) patients developed MRI changes consistent with encephalitis, in 4 of these patients, disease course was fatal. Beside PCR-based serology as standard procedure, MRI including diffusion-weighted images and EEG represent additional tools in early HSVE diagnosis. CSF cytology might be particularly supportive in differentiating likely benign forms of encephalitis.

Objective To establish an epidemiological surveillance of viral herpes encephalitis in major hospitals of Monteria, Cordoba. Methods From September 2009 to December 2011, a descriptive study of cases of viral encephalitis was made in three hospitals in the city of Monteria. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples from 118 patients were included in the study. Clinical aspects, as well as cytochemical and microbiological analysis (Gram stain and culture) of CSF, were used for selecting the patients. Virus detection was performed by using multiplex nested PCR for Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2, Epstein Barr virus, Cytomegalovirus and Varicella zoster virus. Results Viral DNA of herpesvirus was detected in the CSFs of 30 (25.4 %) participants, as follows: 22 (18.6 %) Herpes simplex 1 and 2 viruses, 4 (3.3 %) Cytomegalovirus and 1 (0.8 %) Varicella zoster virus. Co-infections were observed in 3 patients (2.5 %), 1 case by HSV-VZV and 2 cases by CMV/HSV. The clinical manifestations of the patients included: headache (18.6 %), fever (14.4 %), asthenia (10.1 %), seizures (9.3 %), vomiting (8.4 %), and stiff neck (5.9 %). Thirty percent of the patients also had HIV-AIDS. A case fatality rate of 20 % was observed for the patients. Conclusions This paper shows that herpesvirus is a cause of infection of the CNS in patients from Cordoba. This study contributes to the epidemiology of encephalitis, as well as to patient management.

Objective: The study aimed to describe the prevalence of HSV DNA, VZV DNA, Enterovirus RNA, Parechovirus RNA, CMV DNA, EBV DNA, adenovirus DNA, HHV-6 DNA, HHV-7 DNA, HHV-8 DNA and Parvovirus B19DNA in children aged less 14 years with a suspected viral infection of the central nervous system in a clinical practice setting., Methods: Between January 2012 and May 2015, cerebrospinal fluids from 304 children were tested with an in-house real-time PCR method., Results: A positive PCR was detected in 64 subjects (21%): the mean number of tests performed in patients who showed a viral infection was 7.5, significantly higher (p = 0.001) with respect to that reported in negative samples (6.4). Enterovirus is the leading virus detected: 12 out of the 37 positive children reported were newborns (85.7% of all the newborns with a positive result). The second most frequently identified virus was HHV-7 (5 positive PCR out of 105 samples tested, 4.8%, if we excluded a child with a concomitant S. pneumoniae isolated), a prevalence significantly higher with respect to VZV (p = 0.02) and to CMV (p = 0.04). HHV-6 was the third most commonly identified aetiology (4.2%). All children were immunocompetent., Significance: Only a minority of children had a specific viral aetiology identified: the rate of HHV-7 positivity suggests a routine testing of these viruses within the diagnostic algorithm in immunocompetent paediatric patients. This approach could help to define the clinical role of this herpesvirus., (Copyright © 2016 European Paediatric Neurology Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is characterized by a pronounced inflammatory activity in the central nervous system (CNS). Here, we investigated the acute and prolonged complement system activity in HSE patients, by using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) for numerous complement components (C). We found increased cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of C3a, C3b, C5 and C5a in HSE patients compared with healthy controls. C3a and C5a concentrations remained increased also compared with patient controls. Our results conclude that the complement system is activated in CNS during HSE in the acute phase, and interestingly also in later stages supporting previous reports of prolonged inflammation., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Encephalitis is parenchymal brain inflammation, commonly due to herpes simplex virus (HSV). Key host inflammatory mediators and their relationship to blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, neuroimaging changes, and disease outcome are poorly understood., Methods: We measured levels of 38 mediators in serum (n = 78) and cerebrospinal fluid (n = 37) specimens from patients with encephalitis, including 17 with disease due to HSV infection. Outcome measures were Glasgow coma and outcome scores; CSF to serum albumin ratio, reflecting BBB permeability; and, in patients with HSV infection, magnetic resonance imaging-based temporal lobe volume., Results: Serum interleukin 1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) levels were elevated in patients with a good outcome (P= .004). Among patients infected with HSV, the ratio of CSF IL-1β to IL-1RA was associated with a worse outcome (P= .009); a ratio of ≥0.55 pg/mL had high specificity and sensitivity for a poor outcome (100% and 83%;P= .015). Temporal lobe volume had a negative correlation with serum IL-1RA level (P= .012) and a positive correlation with serum IL-1α level (P= .0003) and CSF IL-1β level (P= .007). A normal coma score was associated with an elevated interleukin 10 (IL-10) level in serum specimens from HSV-infected patients (P= .007) and CSF specimens from all patients (P= .016); the IL-10 level correlated inversely with BBB permeability (P= .005)., Conclusions: A proinflammatory cytokine response is associated with greater clinical severity, BBB permeability, and neuroimaging damage during encephalitis. IL-1 antagonists should be investigated as adjunctive treatment in encephalitis., (© The Author 2015. Published by Oxford University Press for the Infectious Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, e-mail journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is a life-threatening complication of herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection. Acyclovir (ACV) is the antiviral treatment of choice, but may lead to emergence of ACV-resistant (ACVR) HSV due to mutations in the viral UL23 gene encoding for the ACV-targeted thymidine kinase (TK) protein. Here, we determined the prevalence of intrathecal ACVR-associated HSV TK mutations in HSE patients and compared TK genotypes of sequential HSV isolates in paired cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blister fluid of mucosal HSV lesions. Clinical samples were obtained from 12 HSE patients, encompassing 4 HSV type 1 (HSV-1) and 8 HSV-2 encephalitis patients. HSV DNA load was determined by real-time PCR and complete HSV TK gene sequences were obtained by nested PCR followed by Sanger sequencing. All HSV-1 HSE patients contained viral TK mutations encompassing 30 unique nucleotide and 13 distinct amino acid mutations. By contrast, a total of 5 unique nucleotide and 4 distinct amino acid changes were detected in 7 of 8 HSV-2 patients. Detected mutations were identified as natural polymorphisms located in non-conserved HSV TK gene regions. ACV therapy did not induce the emergence of ACVR-associated HSV TK mutations in consecutive CSF and mucocutaneous samples of 5 individual patients. Phenotypic susceptibility analysis of these mucocutaneous HSV isolates demonstrated ACV-sensitive virus in 2 HSV-1 HSE patients, whereas in two HSV-2 HSE patients ACVR virus was detected in the absence of known ACVR-associated TK mutations. In conclusion, we did not detect intrathecal ACVR-associated TK mutations in HSV isolates obtained from 12 HSE patients.

Background: Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is the most common cause of sporadic encephalitis worldwide. The high mortality rate (70-80 %) of herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) can be reduced to 20-30 % by antiviral therapy. However, normocellular CSF can lure physicians to look for non-infectious causes, resulting in delayed treatment. This study aimed to investigate, characterize and differentiate HSE patients, with normocellular and pleocytosis CSF, according to neuroimaging patterns, underlying disease, CSF viral load and clinical outcome. Patients with proven (by PCR positive CSF) or presumed viral infections of the CNS admitted to King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital between January 2002 and 2011 were analyzed., Results: HSV was detected in the CSF of 43 patients but only 23 patients had encephalitis. Among these 23 patients, 6 cases (26.1 %) had normal CSF WBC (<5 cells/mm(3)). One patient in this normocellular CSF group had HIV infection. Although this patient had low CD4 counts (<200 cells/mm(3)), the peripheral WBC counts showed only mild leukopenia. The CSF HSV viral load in the pleocytosis group was higher than the normocellular group, with an average of 12,200 vs 3027 copies/ml respectively. There was no correlation between the viral load and the clinical outcome. With respect to neuroimaging, 4 (66.7 %) patients in the normocellular group had unremarkable/non-specific results., Conclusions: Normocellular CSF in HSE is not rare, and can be seen in normal as well as immunocompromised hosts. Clinicians should not exclude CNS infection, especially HSE, merely based on the absence of CSF pleocytosis and/or unremarkable neuroimaging study.

A 74-year-old man presented with acute right-sided hemiparesis and epilepsia partialis continua in association with fever and confusion. Initial workup revealed possible cerebritis in the left medial frontal lobe without involvement of the temporal lobes. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis revealed minimal lymphocytic pleocytosis but negative real-time herpes simplex virus (HSV) PCR. Acyclovir was discontinued on day 5 due to a negative infectious workup and clinical improvement. On day 9 his condition deteriorated and he was transferred to a higher level of acuity for advanced supportive care. Worsening encephalopathy and refractory status epilepticus ensued despite medical care. Repeat CSF analysis showed mild lymphocytic pleocytosis with negative real-time HSV PCR. Brain MRI revealed progression of cortical enhancement. Immunosuppressive therapy and plasma exchange were attempted without clinical response. On day 24, another lumbar puncture showed only mild lymphocytic pleocytosis. Brain MRI showed involvement of the right medial temporal lobe. Subsequently, acyclovir was resumed. The HSV-1 PCR result was positive on day 30. Unfortunately, the patient expired., (2015 BMJ Publishing Group Ltd.)

Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE), which is caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV), is a severe neuro-infectious disease characterized by high mortality and morbidity. We reviewed the pathomechanism, diagnosis, and treatment of HSE based on recent progress in the field. The highlighted mechanism of HSE in this review is immune-mediated tissue damage caused by host immunity. Major symptoms of HSE include psychiatric alteration, Klüver-Bucy syndrome, and amnesia, caused by frequent involvement of the limbic system. An important differential diagnosis of HSE is autoimmune limbic encephalitis, including anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis, and anti-voltage-gated K + channel encephalitis. HSE is definitely diagnosed based on the detection of HSV-DNA by polymerase chain reaction and/or the detection of HSV-IgG antibody in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Repeated CSF examinations are required for the accurate diagnosis of HSE. Acyclovir (ACV) plays a central role in the treatment of HSE, and its early initiation is essential for good outcome in patients with HSE. Acute administration of corticosteroids for HSE is controversial; a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to investigate the efficacy of add-on corticosteroids to ACV is ongoing.

Introduction: Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is the most common etiology of sporadic encephalitis and presents with an estimated mortality of 50-70%., Objective: To describe baseline characteristics of patients with herpetic encephalitis admitted to a tertiary teaching hospital and their difference with patients with non herpetic encephalitis., Materials and Methods: Nested case control study using a retrospective cohort of patients with suspected encephalitis admitted to the Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires (2006-2013). Adult patients included had a lumbar puncture with a positive or negative polimerase reaction for HSV. A case of herpetic encephalitis was defined as a positive polimerase reaction in spinal fluid. For each case, 5 controls were randomly selected., Results: There were no baseline differences present between cases and controls. The only covariate associated with herpetic encephalitis was an abnormal brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (OR: 5.37, IC 95% 1.42-20.38, p < 0.01). The most frecuent alterations in the MRI were extratemporal lesions or temporal ones with or without haemorrhage., Discussion: There are no apparent baseline clinical differences between patients with or without herpetic encephalitis. A positive finding in a brain MRI should be taken into account during clinical workup.

The B-cell-activating factor belonging to the tumor necrosis factor family (BAFF) and a proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL) are important factors for the survival of transitional and mature B cells. High levels of BAFF and APRIL are present in adults with several autoimmune diseases. However, there are few reports about BAFF and APRIL levels in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients with meningoencephalitis. We evaluated BAFF and APRIL levels in CSF samples from patients with viral meningitis (VM) (28 patients), autoimmune encephalitis (AE) associated with antineuronal antibodies (15 patients), idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH) (11 patients), herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) (9 patients), bacterial meningitis (BM) (6 patients), and cryptococcal meningitis (CM) (4 patients). The CSF BAFF levels were significantly higher in patients with HSE, BM, or VM than AE or iNPH, and significantly higher in patients with CM than iNPH. The CSF APRIL levels were significantly higher in patients with HSE or BM than AE, VM, or iNPH. Although this is a preliminary report due to within-group variation and small sample size, the data suggest that CSF BAFF and APRIL levels are increased in HSE and BM, but not AE., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)