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Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are typically composed of liquid lipids, solid lipids, and surfactants, enabling the encapsulation of lipophilic drugs. Butamben is a Class II anesthetic drug, according to the Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS); it has a log P of 2.87 and is considered a ‘brick dust’ (poorly water-soluble and poorly lipid-soluble) drug. This characteristic poses a challenge for the development of NLCs, as they are not soluble in the liquid lipid present in the NLC core. In a previous study, we developed an NLC core consisting of a solid lipid (CrodamolTM CP), a lipophilic liquid with medium polarity (SRTM Lauryl lactate), and a hydrophilic excipient (SRTM DMI) that allowed the solubilization of ‘brick dust’ types of drugs, including butamben. In this study, starting from the NLC core formulation previously developed we carried out an optimization of the surfactant system and evaluated their performance in aqueous medium. Three different surfactants (CrodasolTM HS HP, SynperonicTM PE/F68, and CroduretTM 40) were studied and, for each of them, a 23 factorial design was stablished, with total lipids, % surfactant, and sonication time (min) as the input variables and particle size (nm), polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential (mV) as the response variables. Stable NLCs were obtained using CrodasolTM HS HP and SynperonicTM PE/F68 as surfactants. Through a comparison between NLCs developed with and without SRTM DMI, it was observed that besides helping the solubilization of butamben in the NLC core, this excipient helped in stabilizing the system and decreasing particle size. NLCs containing CrodasolTM HS HP and SynperonicTM PE/F68 presented particle size values in the nanometric scale, PDI values lower than 0.3, and zeta potentials above |10|mV. Concerning NLCs’ stability, SBTB-NLC with SynperonicTM PE/F68 and butamben demonstrated stability over a 3-month period in aqueous medium. The remaining NLCs showed phase separation or precipitation during the 3-month analysis. Nevertheless, these formulations could be freeze-dried after preparation, which would avoid precipitation in an aqueous medium.

Abstract Tetracaine (TTC) is a local anesthetic broadly used for topical and spinal blockade, despite its systemic toxicity. Encapsulation in nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) may prolong TTC delivery at the site of injection, reducing such toxicity. This work reports the development of NLC loading 4% TTC. Structural properties and encapsulation efficiency (%EE > 63%) guided the selection of three pre-formulations of different lipid composition, through a 23 factorial design of experiments (DOE). DLS and TEM analyses revealed average sizes (193–220 nm), polydispersity ( 48 h) and reducing TTC cytotoxicity against Balb/c 3T3 cells.

Abstract Background Cancer constitutes group of diseases responsible for the second largest cause of global death, and it is currently considered one of the main public health concerns nowadays. Early diagnosis associated with the best choice of therapeutic strategy, is essential to achieve success in cancer treatment. In women, breast cancer is the second most common type, whereas ovarian cancer has the highest lethality when compared to other neoplasms of the female genital system. The present work, therefore, proposes the association of methylene blue with citrate-coated maghemite nanoparticles (MAGCIT–MB) as a nanocomplex for the treatment of breast and ovarian cancer. Results In vitro studies showed that T-47D and A2780 cancer cell lines underwent a significant reduction in cell viability after treatment with MAGCIT–MB, an event not observed in non-tumor (HNTMC and HUVEC) cells and MDA-MB-231, a triple-negative breast cancer cell line. Flow cytometry experiments suggest that the main mechanism of endocytosis involved in the interiorization of MAGCIT–MB is the clathrin pathway, whereas both late apoptosis and necrosis are the main types of cell death caused by the nanocomplex. Scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy reveal significant changes in the cell morphology. Quantification of reactive oxygen species confirmed the MAGCIT–MB cytotoxic mechanism and its importance for the treatment of tumor cells. The lower cytotoxicity of individual solution of maghemite nanoparticles with citrate (MAGCIT) and free methylene blue (MB) shows that their association in the nanocomplex is responsible for its enhanced therapeutic potential in the treatment of breast and ovarian cancer in vitro. Conclusions Treatment with MAGCIT–MB induces the death of cancer cells but not normal cells. These results highlight the importance of the maghemite core for drug delivery and for increasing methylene blue activity, aiming at the treatment of breast and ovarian cancer. Graphic Abstract

Abstract Topical anesthetics are widely applied in order to relieve the discomfort and anxiety caused by needle insertion and other painful superficial interventions at the oral cavity. So far, there are no commercially available effective topical anesthetic formulations for that purpose, and the most of developments are related to hydrophilic and low mucoadhesive forms. Therefore, we have prepared different hybrid nanofilms composed of biopolymer matrices (chitosan, pectin, and chitosan-pectin) blended with nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) loading the eutectic mixture of 5% lidocaine–prilocaine (LDC–PLC), in order to fulfill this gap in the market. These dual systems were processed as hybrid nanofilms by the solvent/casting method, and its mucoadhesive, structural and mechanical properties were detailed. The most appropriate hybrid nanofilm combined the advantages of both pectin (PCT) and NLC components. The resultant material presented sustained LDC–PLC release profile for more than 8 h; permeation across porcine buccal mucosa almost twice higher than control and non-cytotoxicity against 3T3 and HACAT cell lines. Then, the in vivo efficacy of PCT/NLC formulation was compared to biopolymer film and commercial drug, exhibiting the longest-lasting anesthetic effect (> 7 h), assessed by tail flick test in mice. These pectin-based hybrid nanofilms open perspectives for clinical trials and applications beyond Dentistry.

Unsuccessful anesthesia often occurs under an inflammatory tissue environment, making dentistry treatment extremely painful and challenging. Articaine (ATC) is a local anesthetic used at high (4%) concentrations. Since nanopharmaceutical formulations may improve the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of drugs, we encapsulated ATC in nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) aiming to increase the anesthetic effect on the inflamed tissue. Moreover, the lipid nanoparticles were prepared with natural lipids (copaiba (Copaifera langsdorffii) oil and avocado (Persia gratissima) butter) that added functional activity to the nanosystem. NLC-CO-A particles (~217 nm) showed an amorphous lipid core structure according to DSC and XDR. In an inflammatory pain model induced by λ-carrageenan in rats, NLC-CO-A improved (30%) the anesthetic efficacy and prolonged anesthesia (3 h) in relation to free ATC. In a PGE2-induced pain model, the natural lipid formulation significantly reduced (~20%) the mechanical pain when compared to synthetic lipid NLC. Opioid receptors were involved in the detected analgesia effect since their blockage resulted in pain restoration. The pharmacokinetic evaluation of the inflamed tissue showed that NLC-CO-A decreased tissue ATC elimination rate (ke) by half and doubled ATC’s half-life. These results present NLC-CO-A as an innovative system to break the impasse of anesthesia failure in inflamed tissue by preventing ATC accelerated systemic removal by the inflammatory process and improving anesthesia by its association with copaiba oil.

Abstract Inflammatory conditions of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and peripheral tissues affect many people around the world and are commonly treated with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). However, in order to get desirable results, treatments with NSAIDs may take weeks, causing undesirable side effects and requiring repeated administration. In this sense, this work describes the development of an optimized nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) formulation for intra-articular administration of naproxen (NPX). An experimental design (23) selected the best formulation in terms of its physicochemical and structural properties, elucidated by different methods (DLS, NTA, TEM, DSC, and ATR-FTIR). The chosen formulation (NLC-NPX) was tested on acute inflammatory TMJ nociception, in a rat model. The optimized excipients composition provided higher NPX encapsulation efficiency (99.8%) and the nanoparticles were found stable during 1 year of storage at 25 °C. In vivo results demonstrated that the sustained delivery of NPX directly in the TMJ significantly reduced leukocytes migration and levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and TNF-α), for more than a week. These results point out the NLC-NPX formulation as a promising candidate for the safe treatment of inflammatory pain conditions of TMJ or other joints.

Breast cancer is the neoplasia of highest incidence in women worldwide. Docetaxel (DTX), a taxoid used to treat breast cancer, is a BCS-class-IV compound (low oral bioavailability, solubility and intestinal permeability). Nanotechnological strategies can improve chemotherapy effectiveness by promoting sustained release and reducing systemic toxicity. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) encapsulate hydrophobic drugs in their blend-of-lipids matrix, and imperfections prevent drug expulsion during storage. This work describes the preparation, by design of experiments (23 factorial design) of a novel NLC formulation containing copaiba oil (CO) as a functional excipient. The optimized formulation (NLCDTX) showed approximately 100% DTX encapsulation efficiency and was characterized by different techniques (DLS, NTA, TEM/FE-SEM, DSC and XRD) and was stable for 12 months of storage, at 25 °C. Incorporation into the NLC prolonged drug release for 54 h, compared to commercial DTX (10 h). In vitro cytotoxicity tests revealed the antiproliferative effect of CO and NLCDTX, by reducing the cell viability of breast cancer (4T1/MCF-7) and healthy (NIH-3T3) cells more than commercial DTX. NLCDTX thus emerges as a promising drug delivery system of remarkable anticancer effect, (strengthened by CO) and sustained release that, in clinics, may decrease systemic toxicity at lower DTX doses.

Campylobacter jejuni (CJ) is the most prevalent zoonotic pathogen of chicken meat and related products, which may lead to gastroenteritis and autoimmune diseases in humans. Although controlling this bacterium is important, CJ strains resistance against traditional antibiotic therapy has been increased. Vegetable oils and fats are natural biomaterials explored since the Ancient times, due to their therapeutic properties. Nanotechnology has promoted the miniaturization of materials, improving bioavailability and efficacy, while reducing the toxicity of loaded active molecules. In this work, a screening of 28 vegetable oils was firstly performed, in order to select anti-CJ candidates by the disc diffusion test. Thus, the selected liquid lipids were used as active molecules in nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) formulations. The three resultant systems were characterized in terms of particle size (~200 nm), polydispersity index (~0.15), and zeta potential (~-35mV), and its physicochemical stability was confirmed for a year, at 25°C. The structural properties of NLC were assessed by infrared (FTIR-ATR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analyses. The spherical nanoparticle morphology and narrow size distribution was observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and field emission scanning electron (FE-SEM) analyses, respectively. Then, the in vitro antimicrobial activity test determined the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of each formulation against CJ strains, in both free (1–3 mg/ml−1) and sessile (0.78 mg/ml−1) forms. Finally, the in vitro biocompatibility of NLC was demonstrated through cell viability using VERO cell line, in which F6 was found twice less cytotoxic than pure olibanum oil. Considering the abovementioned achieved, F6 formulation is able to be evaluated in the in vivo anti-CJ efficacy assays.

In recent years, advanced nanohybrid materials processed as pharmaceuticals have proved to be very advantageous. Triptans, such as the commercially available intranasal sumatriptan (SMT), are drugs employed in the treatment of painful migraine symptoms. However, SMT effectiveness by the intranasal route is limited by its high hydrophilicity and poor mucoadhesion. Therefore, we designed hybrid nanoemulsions (NE) composed of copaiba oil as the organic component plus biopolymers (xanthan, pectin, alginate) solubilized in the continuous aqueous phase, aiming at the intranasal release of SMT (2% w/v). Firstly, drug-biopolymer complexes were optimized in order to decrease the hydrophilicity of SMT. The resultant complexes were further encapsulated in copaiba oil-based nanoparticles, forming NE formulations. Characterization by FTIR-ATR, DSC, and TEM techniques exposed details of the molecular arrangement of the hybrid systems. Long-term stability of the hybrid NE at 25°C was confirmed over a year, regarding size (~ 120 nm), polydispersity (~ 0.2), zeta potential (~ −25 mV), and nanoparticle concentration (~ 2.1014 particles/mL). SMT encapsulation efficiency in the formulations ranged between 41–69%, extending the in vitro release time of SMT from 5 h (free drug) to more than 24 h. The alginate-based NE was selected as the most desirable system and its in vivo nanotoxicity was evaluated in a zebrafish model. Hybrid NE treatment did not affect spontaneous movement or induce morphological changes in zebrafish larvae, and there was no evidence of mortality or cardiotoxicity after 48 h of treatment. With these results, we propose alginate-based nanoemulsions as a potential treatment for migraine pain.

Articaine (ATC) and lidocaine (LDC) are the local anesthetics (LAs) currently most employed in dentistry. Cases of paresthesia, reported more frequently for ATC, have raised concerns about their potential neurotoxicity, calling for further investigation of their biological effects in neuronal cells. In this work, the impact of ATC and LDC on the metabolism of SH-SY5Y cells was investigated through 1H NMR metabolomics. For each LA, in vitro cultured cells were exposed to concentrations causing 10 and 50% reductions in cell viability, and their metabolic intracellular and extracellular profiles were characterized. Most effects were common to ATC and LDC, although with varying magnitudes. The metabolic variations elicited by the two LAs suggested (i) downregulation of glycolysis and of glucose-dependent pathways (e.g., one-carbon metabolism and hexosamine biosynthetic pathway), (ii) disturbance of branched chain amino acids (BCAA) catabolism, (iii) downregulation of TCA cycle anaplerotic fueling and activation of alternative energy producing pathways, (iv) interference with choline metabolism and (v) lipid droplet build-up. Interestingly, LDC had a greater impact on membrane phospholipid turnover, as suggested by higher phosphatidylcholine to phosphocholine conversion. Moreover, LDC elicited an increase in triglycerides, whereas cholesteryl esters accumulated in ATC-exposed cells, suggesting a different composition and handling of lipid droplets.

The drugs delivery system in the treatment of diseases has advantages such as reduced toxicity, increased availability of the drug, etc. Therefore, studies of the supramolecular interactions between local anesthetics (LAs) butamben (BTB) or ropivacaine (RVC) complexed with 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-βCD) and carried in Stealth liposomal (SL) are performed. 1H-NMR nuclear magnetic resonance (DOSY and STD) were used as the main tools. The displacements observed in the 1H-NMR presented the complexion between LAs and HP-βCD. The diffusion coefficients of free BTB and RVC were 7.70 × 10−10 m2 s−1 and 4.07 × 10−10 m2 s−1, and in the complex with HP-βCD were 1.90 × 10−10 m2 s−1 and 3.64 × 10−10 m2 s−1, respectively, which indicate a strong interaction between the BTB molecule and HP-βCD (98.3% molar fraction and Ka = 72.279 L/mol). With STD-NMR, the encapsulation of the BTB/HP-βCD and RVC/HP-βCD in SL vesicles was proven. Beyond the saturation transfer to the LAs, there is the magnetization transfer to the hydrogens of HP-βCD. BTB and RVC have already been studied in normal liposome systems; however, little is known of their behavior in SL.

Coumaric acid (CouH), an antioxidant molecule assimilated by food consumption, was intercalated into layered double hydroxide (LDH) nanocarrier, having zinc and aluminium ions in the layers (LDH-Cou), to evaluate its pharmacological activity through in vitro and in vivo assays in mice. Therefore, the following tests were performed: coumarate delivery in saline solution, fibroblasts’ cell viability using neutral red, peritonitis induced by carrageenan, formalin test, acetic-acid-induced writhing, and tail-flick assay, for the non-intercalated CouH and the intercalated LDH-Cou system. Furthermore, different pharmacological pathways were also investigated to evaluate their possible anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive mechanisms of action, in comparison to traditionally used agents (morphine, naloxone, caffeine, and indomethacin). The LDH-Cou drug delivery system showed more pronounced anti-inflammatory effect than CouH but not more than that evoked by the classic non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) indomethacin. For the analgesic effect, according to the tail-flick test, the treatment with LDH-Cou expressively increased the analgesia duration (p < 0.001) by approximately 1.7–1.8 times compared to CouH or indomethacin. Thus, the results pointed out that the LDH-Cou system induced in vivo analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities and possibly uses similar mechanisms to that observed for classic NSAIDs, such as indomethacin.

The oral administration of the anti-inflammatory indomethacin (INDO) causes severe gastrointestinal side effects, which are intensified in chronic inflammatory conditions when a continuous treatment is mandatory. The development of hybrid delivery systems associates the benefits of different (nano) carriers in a single system, designed to improve the efficacy and/or minimize the toxicity of drugs. This work describes the preparation of hybrid nanobeads composed of nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) loading INDO (2%; w/v) and chitosan, coated by xanthan. NLC formulations were monitored in a long-term stability study (25 °C). After one year, they showed suitable physicochemical properties (size < 250 nm, polydispersity < 0.2, zeta potential of −30 mV and spherical morphology) and an INDO encapsulation efficiency of 99%. The hybrid (lipid-biopolymers) nanobeads exhibited excellent compatibility between the biomaterials, as revealed by structural and thermodynamic properties, monodisperse size distribution, desirable in vitro water uptake and prolonged in vitro INDO release (26 h). The in vivo safety of hybrid nanobeads was confirmed by the chicken embryo (CE) toxicity test, considering the embryos viability, weights of CE and annexes and changes in the biochemical markers. The results point out a safe gastro-resistant pharmaceutical form for further efficacy assays.

Ideally, antineoplastic treatment aims to selectively eradicate cancer cells without causing systemic toxicity. A great number of antineoplastic agents (AAs) are available nowadays, with well-defined therapeutic protocols. The poor bioavailability, non-selective action, high systemic toxicity, and lack of effectiveness of most AAs have stimulated the search for novel chemotherapy protocols, including technological approaches that provide drug delivery systems (DDS) for gold standard medicines. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) are DDS that contain a core of solid and lipid liquids stabilised by surfactants. NLC have high upload capacity for lipophilic drugs, such as the majority of AAs. These nanoparticles can be prepared with a diversity of biocompatible (synthetic or natural) lipid blends, administered by different routes and functionalised for targeting purposes. This review focused on the research carried out from 2000 to now, regarding NLC formulations for AAs (antimetabolites, antimitotics, alkylating agents, and antibiotics) encapsulation, with special emphasis on studies carried out in vivo. NLC systems for codelivery of AAs were also considered, as well as those for non-classical drugs and therapies (natural products and photosensitisers). NLC have emerged as powerful DDS to improve the bioavailability, targeting and efficacy of antineoplastics, while decreasing their toxic effect in the treatment of different types of cancer.

Recent advances have been reported for needle-free local anesthesia in maxillary teeth by administering a nasal spray of tetracaine (TTC) and oxymetazoline, without causing pain, fear, and stress. This work aimed to assess whether a TTC-loaded hybrid system could reduce cytotoxicity, promote sustained permeation, and increase the anesthetic efficacy of TTC for safe, effective, painless, and prolonged analgesia of the maxillary teeth in dental procedures. The hybrid system based on TTC (4%) encapsulated in nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) and incorporated into a thermoreversible hydrogel of poloxamer 407 (TTCNLC-HG4%) displayed desirable rheological, mechanical, and mucoadhesive properties for topical application in the nasal cavity. Compared to control formulations, the use of TTCNLC-HG4% slowed in vitro permeation of the anesthetic across the nasal mucosa, maintained cytotoxicity against neuroblastoma cells, and provided a three-fold increase in analgesia duration, as observed using the tail-flick test in mice. The results obtained here open up perspectives for future clinical evaluation of the thermoreversible hybrid hydrogel, which contains TTC-loaded NLC, with the aim of creating an effective, topical, intranasal, needle-free anesthesia for use in dentistry.

The data presented in this article are related to the research article entitled âProbing the dynamics of complexed local anesthetics via neutron scattering spectroscopy and DFT calculations (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.03.051)â (Martins et al., 2017) [1]. This work shows the molecular and structural behavior of the local anesthetics (LAs) bupivacaine (BVC, C18H28N2O) and ropivacaine (RVC, C17H26N2O) before and after complexation with the water-soluble oligosaccharide 2-hydroxypropylâβâcyclodextrin (HP-β-CD).

Objective: The aim of the present study was to encapsulate vancomycin in different liposomal formulations and compare the in vitro antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus biofilms.Methods: Large unilamellar vesicles of conventional (LUV VAN), fusogenic (LUVfuso VAN), and cationic (LUVcat VAN) liposomes encapsulating VAN were characterized in terms of size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, morphology, encapsulation efficiency (%EE) and in vitro release kinetics. The formulations were tested for their Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and inhibitory activity on biofilm formation and viability, using methicillin-susceptible S. aureus ATCC 29213 and methicillin-resistant S. aureus ATCC 43300 strains.Key Findings: LUV VAN showed better %EE (32.5%) and sustained release than LUVfuso VAN, LUVcat VAN, and free VAN. The formulations were stable over 180 days at 4°C, except for LUV VAN, which was stable up to 120 days. The MIC values for liposomal formulations and free VAN ranged from 0.78 to 1.56 µg/ml against both tested strains, with no difference in the inhibition of biofilm formation as compared to free VAN. However, when treating mature biofilm, encapsulated LUVfuso VAN increased the antimicrobial efficacy as compared to the other liposomal formulations and to free VAN, demonstrating a better ability to penetrate the biofilm.Conclusion: Vancomycin encapsulated in fusogenic liposomes demonstrated enhanced antimicrobial activity against mature S. aureus biofilms.

Melanoma is the most aggressive skin carcinoma and nanotechnology can bring new options for its pharmacological treatment. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) are ideal drug-delivery carriers for hydrophobic drugs, such as the antineoplastic docetaxel (DTX), and hybrid (NLC-in-hydrogel) systems are suitable for topical application. This work describes a formulation of NLCDTX in xanthan-chitosan hydrogel containing lidocaine (LDC) with anticancer and analgesia effects. The optimized nanoparticles encapsulated 96% DTX and rheological analysis revealed inherent viscoelastic properties of the hydrogel. In vitro assays over murine fibroblasts (NIH/3T3) and melanoma cells (B16-F10), human keratinocytes (HaCaT) and melanoma cells (SK-MEL-103) showed reduction of docetaxel cytotoxicity after encapsulation in NLCDTX and HGel-NLCDTX. Addition of LDC to the hybrid system (HGel-NLCDTX-LDC) increased cell death in tumor and normal cells. In vivo tests on C57BL/6J mice with B16-F10-induced melanoma indicated that LDC, NLCDTX, HGel-NLCDTX-LDC and NLCDTX + HGel-LDC significantly inhibited tumor growth while microPET/SPECT/CT data suggest better prognosis with the hybrid treatment. No adverse effects were observed in cell survival, weight/feed-consumption or serum biochemical markers (ALT, AST, creatinine, urea) of animals treated with NLCDTX or the hybrid system. These results confirm the adjuvant antitumor effect of lidocaine and endorse HGel-NLCDTX-LDC as a promising formulation for the topical treatment of melanoma.

This work describes the development of a gastroresistant antimicrobial formulation composed of two carriers, pectin and liposomes, intended to improve the efficiency of norfloxacin (NOR) against multi-resistant bacterial strains. The formulations showed physicochemical stability for 180 days (4 °C) in terms of size, polydispersity, and zeta potential of the vesicles, prolonging the in vitro release of NOR for 11 h. The hybrid nanocarriers improved the in vitro antimicrobial activity against different multidrug-resistant bacterial strains, such as Salmonella sp., Pseudomonasaeruginosa, E. coli and Campylobacterjejuni, in comparison to commercial NOR and liposomal suspensions. The in vivo toxicity assay in chicken embryos revealed that the hybrid systems were not toxic in any of the different parameters analyzed, a result also corroborated by the analyses of biochemical biomarkers of the chicken-embryos liver function.

Ropivacaine is a local anesthetic with similar potency but lower systemic toxicity than bupivacaine, the most commonly used spinal anesthetic. The present study concerns the development of a combined drug delivery system for ropivacaine, comprised of two types of liposomes: donor multivesicular vesicles containing 250 mM (NH4)2SO4 plus the anesthetic, and acceptor large unilamellar vesicles with internal pH of 5.5. Both kinds of liposomes were composed of hydrogenated soy-phosphatidylcholine:cholesterol (2:1 mol%) and were prepared at pH 7.4. Dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy and electron paramagnetic resonance techniques were used to characterize the average particle size, polydispersity, zeta potential, morphology and fluidity of the liposomes. In vitro dialysis experiments showed that the combined liposomal system provided significantly longer (72 h) release of ropivacaine, compared to conventional liposomes (~45 h), or plain ropivacaine (~4 h) (p

The use of biomaterials composed of organic pristine components has been successfully described in several purposes, such as tissue engineering and drug delivery. Drug delivery systems (DDS) have shown several advantages over traditional drug therapy, such as greater therapeutic efficacy, prolonged delivery profile, and reduced drug toxicity, as evidenced by in vitro and in vivo studies as well as clinical trials. Despite that, there is no perfect delivery carrier, and issues such as undesirable viscosity and physicochemical stability or inability to efficiently encapsulate hydrophilic/hydrophobic molecules still persist, limiting DDS applications. To overcome that, biohybrid systems, originating from the synergistic assembly of polymers and other organic materials such as proteins and lipids, have recently been described, yielding molecularly planned biohybrid systems that are able to optimize structures to easily interact with the targets. This work revised the biohybrid DDS clarifying their advantages, limitations, and future perspectives in an attempt to contribute to further research of innovative and safe biohybrid polymer-based system as biomaterials for the sustained release of active molecules.

Dibucaine (DBC) is among the more potent long-acting local anesthetics (LA), and it is also one of the most toxic. Over the last decades, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) have been developed as promising carriers for drug delivery. In this study, SLN formulations were prepared with the aim of prolonging DBC release and reducing its toxicity. To this end, SLN composed of two different lipid matrices and prepared by two different hot-emulsion techniques (high-pressure procedure and sonication) were compared. The colloidal stability of the SLN formulations was tracked in terms of particle size (nm), polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential (mV) for 240 days at 4 °C; the DBC encapsulation efficiency was determined by the ultrafiltration/centrifugation method. The formulations were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), and release kinetic experiments. Finally, the in vitro cytotoxicity against 3T3 fibroblast and HaCaT cells was determined, and the in vivo analgesic action was assessed using the tail flick test in rats. Both of the homogenization procedures were found suitable to produce particles in the 200 nm range, with good shelf stability (240 days) and high DBC encapsulation efficiency (~72⁻89%). DSC results disclosed structural information on the nanoparticles, such as the lower crystallinity of the lipid core vs. the bulk lipid. EPR measurements provided evidence of DBC partitioning in both SLNs. In vitro (cytotoxicity) and in vivo (tail flick) experiments revealed that the encapsulation of DBC into nanoparticles reduces its intrinsic cytotoxicity and prolongs the anesthetic effect, respectively. These results show that the SLNs produced are safe and have great potential to extend the applications of dibucaine by enhancing its bioavailability.

In this paper we describe the preparation poly (L-lactide) (PLA) nanocapsules as a drug delivery system for the local anesthetic benzocaine. The characterization and in vitro release properties of the system were investigated. The characterization results showed a polydispersity index of 0.14, an average diameter of 190.1± 3 nm, zeta potential of -38.5 mV and an entrapment efficiency of 73%. The release profile of Benzocaine loaded in PLA nanocapsules showed a significant different behavior than that of the pure anesthetic in solution. This study is important to characterize a drug release system using benzocaine for application in pain treatment.

Many theories about the mechanism of action of local anesthetics (LA) are described in the literature. Two types of theories can be distinguished: those that focus on the direct effects of LA on their target protein in the axon membranes, i.e. the voltage-gated sodium channel and the ones that take into account the interaction of anesthetic molecules with the lipid membrane phase for the reversible nerve blockage. Since there is a direct correlation between LA hydrophobicity and potency, it is crucial to take this physico-chemical property into account to understand the mechanism of action of LA, be it on the sodium channel protein, lipid(s), or on the whole membrane phase.

Bupivacaine (S75-R25, NovaBupi®) is an amide type local anesthetic widely used. The present work consists of the development and validation of analytical methodology for evaluation of NovaBupi® content in the poly-lactide-co-glycolide nanospheres (PLGA-NS) by high performance liquid chromatography. The separation was made using the reversed-phase column LC-18, acetonitrile/phosphate buffer 85:15 v/v as mobile phase and detection at 220 nm. The results obtained show that the analytical methodology is accurate, reproducible, robust and linear over the concentration range 10-220.0 g/mL of NovaBupi®. The method was applied to determine the encapsulation efficiency and evaluate the release profile of NovaBupi®, showing good results.

PURPOSE:To develop an anesthetic mucoadhesive film containing Acmella oleracea (jambu) extract for topical use on oral mucosa. METHODS:Ethanolic extracts from aerial parts of jambu were prepared by maceration. Pigment removal was obtained by adsorption with activated carbon. Three mucoadhesive films were developed using a film casting method: 10 or 20% of crude jambu extract (10% JB and 20% JB), and 10% of crude jambu extract treated with activated carbon (10% JBC). The mucoadhesive films were characterized regarding their uniformity, thickness, pH, and spilanthol content, and their stability was evaluated during 120 days. Gas chromatography was used to quantify the amount of spilanthol. In vitro tests determined the permeation of spilanthol across pig esophageal epithelium mucosa in Franz diffusion cells. Topical anesthetic efficacy was assessed in vivo using a tail flick test in mice. RESULTS:The three mucoadhesive films showed physical stability and visual appearances suitable for use on oral mucosa. The permeation study revealed that the spilanthol from 10% JBC presented higher flux and permeability coefficient values, compared to 10% or 20% JB (p < 0.001). Moreover, 10% JBC showed better topical anesthetic efficacy than the other films (p < 0.01). CONCLUSION:Mucoadhesive film containing crude extract of jambu treated with activated carbon is a potential alternative for oral, topical use, encouraging future clinical studies.

Characteriza of the inclusion complex ropivacaine: beta-cyclodextrin. Ropivacaine (RVC) is a widely used local anesthetic. The complexation of RVC with beta-cyclodextrin (beta-CD) is of great interest for the development of more efficient local anesthetic formulations. The present work focuses on the characterization of the RVC:beta-CD complex by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The stoichiometry of the complex is 1:2 RVC:beta-CD. DOSY-NMR shows that the association constant is 55.5 M-1. Longitudinal relaxation time results show that RVC changes its mobility in the presence of beta-CD. This study is focused on the physicochemical characterization of inclusion complexes that are potentials options for pain treatment.

S(-) Bupivacaine (S(-)BVC) and Lidocaine (LDC) are widely used local anesthetics (LA). Hydroxypropyl beta-cyclodextrin (HP-beta-CD) is used as a drug-carrier system. The aim of this work was to characterize inclusion complexes between LA and HP-beta-CD. The affinity constants determined at different pHs show favourable complexation. The release kinetics experiments showed that S(-)BVC and LDC changed the released profiles in the presence of HP-beta-CD. Nuclear magnetic resonance experiments gave information about the interaction between LA and the cyclodextrin cavity. This study focused on the physicochemical characterization of drug-delivery formulations that come out as potentially new therapeutic options for pain treatment.

JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: Com a finalidade de prolongar a duração de ação e reduzir a toxicidade sistêmica, têm-se desenvolvido formulações de anestésicos locais (AL) complexados com ciclodextrinas (CD). Este estudo realizou a caracterização físico-química e avaliou, em ratos, os efeitos dos complexos de inclusão de bupivacaína racêmica (S50-R50) e da mistura com excesso enantiomérico de 50% (S75-R25) de bupivacaína com hidroxipropil-betaciclodextrina (HP-beta-CD), comparando-os com as soluções atualmente utilizadas na clínica. MÉTODO: Os complexos de inclusão de S75-R25 em HP-beta-CD (razão molar 1:1) foram caracterizados por estudos de solubilidade de fases variando-se as concentrações de HP-beta-CD e a temperatura. Determinaram-se as constantes de afinidade (K) pela HP-beta-CD e os parâmetros termodinâmicos para a complexação. Os bloqueios motor e sensitivo foram avaliados, por meio da administração subaracnóidea das formulações na concentração clínica de 0,5%. RESULTADOS: A formação de complexos de inclusão foi observada pelo aumento da solubilidade aquosa do AL sob diferentes temperaturas e concentrações de HP-beta-CD. Os testes in vivo mostraram que S50-R50HP-beta-CD e S75-R25HP-beta-CD reduziram a latência (p < 0,001) sem alterar o tempo de recuperação do bloqueio motor, tempo para efeito máximo e efeito total dos fármacos. Além disso, ambas as formulações aumentaram a intensidade (1,5 vez, p < 0,001) e prolongaram a duração da analgesia, com relação aos fármacos livres. CONCLUSÕES: Os complexos S50-R50HP-beta-CD e S75-R25HP-beta-CD potencializaram o bloqueio nervoso diferencial, podendo ser utilizados para reduzir a freqüência de administrações ou a dose de AL para indução de um mesmo efeito. A formulação contendo a mistura com excesso enantiomérico de 50% (S75-R25) de bupivacaína mostrou-se interessante no desenvolvimento de formulações seguras e úteis para o tratamento da dor aguda no período pós-operatório.JUSTIFICATIVA Y OBJETIVOS: Con la finalidad de prolongar la duración de la acción y reducir la toxicidad sistémica, se han desarrollado formulaciones de AL con complejo de ciclodextrinas (CD). Ese estudio realizó la caracterización físico-química y evaluó en ratones, los efectos de los complejos de inclusión de bupivacaína racémica (S50-R50) y de la mezcla con exceso enantiomérico de 50% (S75-R25) de bupivacaína con hidroxipropil-betaciclodextrina (HP-beta-CD), comparándolos con las soluciones actualmente utilizadas en la clínica. MÉTODO: Los complejos de inclusión de S75-R25 en HP-beta-CD (razón molar 1:1) fueron caracterizados por estudios de solubilidad de fases variando las concentraciones de HP-beta-CD y la temperatura. Fueron determinadas las constantes de afinidad (K) por la HP-beta-CD y los parámetros termodinámicos para los complejos. Los bloqueos motor y sensitivo fueron evaluados en ratones, a través de la administración subaracnoidea de las formulaciones en la concentración clínica de 0,5%. RESULTADOS: La formación de complejos de inclusión se observó a través del aumento de la solubilidad acuosa del AL bajo diferentes temperaturas y concentraciones de HP-beta-CD. Las pruebas in vivo mostraron que S50-R50HP-beta-CD y S75-R25HP-beta-CD redujeron la latencia (p < 0,001) sin alterar el tiempo de recuperación del bloqueo motor, tiempo para efecto máximo y efecto total de los fármacos. Además, ambas formulaciones aumentaron la intensidad (1,5 veces, p < 0,001) y prolongaron la duración de la analgesia, con relación a los fármacos libres. CONCLUSIONES: Los complejos, S50-R50HP-beta-CD y S75-R25HP-beta-CD, potenciaron el bloqueo nervioso diferencial, pudiendo ser utilizados para reducir la frecuencia de administraciones o la dosis de AL para inducción de un mismo efecto. La formulación conteniendo la mezcla con exceso enantiomérico de 50% (S75-R25) de bupivacaina fue interesante en el desarrollo de formulaciones seguras y útiles para el tratamiento del dolor agudo en el período postoperatorio.BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: In order to prolong the action and reduce systemic toxicity, formulations of local anesthetic (LA) complexed with cyclodextrins (CD) have been developed. This study determined the physical-chemical characterization and evaluated the effects of inclusion complexes of racemic bupivacaine (S50-R50) and 50% enantiomeric excess (S75-R25) bupivacaine with hydroxypropil-beta-cyclodextrin (HP-beta-CD) in rats, and comparing them with the solutions currently used in the clinical practice. METHODS: Inclusion complexation of S75-R25 with HP-beta-CD (equimolar ratio 1:1) was characterized by phase-solubility studies varying the concentrations of HP-beta-CD and the temperature. Affinity constants (K) for HP-beta-CD and the thermodynamic parameters for complexation were determined. Motor and sensitive anesthesias were evaluated through the subarachnoid administration of the formulations in the concentration of 0.5%. RESULTS: Inclusion complexation was observed through the increase in aqueous solubility of LA in different temperatures and concentrations of HP-beta-CD. The in vivo tests demonstrated that S50-R50HP-beta-CD and S75-R25HP-beta-CD reduced latency (p < 0.001) without changing the recovery time of the motor block, time for maximal effect, and total effect of the drugs. Besides, both formulations increased the intensity (1.5 times, p < 0.001) and prolonged the duration of analgesia compared to the free drugs. CONCLUSIONS: The complexes S50-R50HP-beta-CD and S75-R25HP-beta-CD potentiated the differential nervous block, and can be used to reduce the frequency of administration or the dose of the LA to induce the same effect. The formulation containing enantiomeric excess (S75-R25) bupivacaine showed to be interesting in the development of safer formulations, and useful for the treatment of acute pain in the postoperative period.

JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: Os efeitos adversos associados ao uso de bupivacaína levaram à procura por novos anestésicos locais (AL) com perfil de bloqueio semelhante e menos tóxicos, surgindo novas preparações como a mistura enantiomérica de bupivacaína (S75-R25). Os sistemas de liberação controlada, contendo AL em carreadores como ciclodextrinas (CD), têm como objetivo melhorar a eficácia anestésica e o índice terapêutico dessas drogas. Este estudo visou a preparação, a caracterização e a avaliação da eficácia anestésica dos complexos de inclusão da mistura enantiomérica da bupivacaína (S75-R25) e da bupivacaína racêmica (S50-R50) com hidroxipropilb-ciclodextrina (HPb-CD) comparando-os com as preparações atualmente utilizadas na clínica. MÉTODO: Os complexos de inclusão foram preparados misturando-se quantidades apropriadas de HPb-CD e S50-R50 ou S75-R25 nas razões molares (1:1 e 1:2) e caracterizados por estudos de solubilidade de fases. Determinaram-se as constantes de afinidade (K) de cada AL pela HPb-CD. Os bloqueios motor e sensorial induzidos pelas drogas livres e complexadas foram avaliados, em camundongos, através do bloqueio do nervo ciático. Para a realização dos experimentos, utilizaram-se três concentrações de AL: 0,125%; 0,25% e 0,5%. RESULTADOS: Os estudos de solubilidade indicaram a formação de complexos de inclusão de S50-R50 e S75-R25 com HPb-CD, com valores de constante de afinidade (K) similares para os dois anestésicos: 14,7 M-1 (S50-R50:HP-bCD) e 14,3 M-1 (S75-R25:HP-bCD). Os testes em animais mostraram que a complexação potencializou o bloqueio nervoso diferencial induzido pelos AL: i) a duração do bloqueio motor induzido por S75-R25 foi similar à do S50-R50, mas menos intenso (p < 0,001). Já os complexos, S50-R50HPb-CD e S75-R25HPb-CD reduziram a latência (p < 0,01 e p < 0,05, respectivamente) sem modificar a intensidade do bloqueio motor (Emáx), em relação às drogas livres; ii) a avaliação do bloqueio sensorial mostrou aumento na intensidade da analgesia com os sistemas S50-R50HPb-CD (2 vezes, p < 0,001) e S75-R25HPb-CD (1,5-1,8 vezes; p < 0,01 e p < 0,001, respectivamente), nas duas proporções molares (1:1 e 1:2, AL:CD), além do prolongamento da duração do efeito analgésico, quando comparados às formulações S50-R50 e S75-R25. CONCLUSÕES: Os efeitos analgésicos mais pronunciados, obtidos após a complexação com HPb-CD, mostram que ambas as formulações, S50-R50HPb-CD e S75-R25HPb-CD, são de grande interesse para o alívio da dor no período pós-operatório, com a vantagem de serem administradas em menores concentrações. Entretanto, há que se ressaltar que a mistura enantiomérica de bupivacaína (S75-R25), por ser menos tóxica, representa uma alternativa no desenvolvimento de formulações de liberação controlada mais seguras e eficazes do que com a bupivacaína racêmica (S50-R50).JUSTIFICATIVA Y OBJETIVOS: Los efectos adversos asociados al uso de bupivacaína llevaron a la búsqueda por nuevos anestésicos locales (AL) con perfil de bloqueo semejante y menos tóxicos, surgiendo nuevas preparaciones como la mezcla enantiomérica de bupivacaína (S75-R25). Los sistemas de liberación controlada, conteniendo AL en carreadores como ciclodextrinas (CD), tienen como objetivo mejorar la eficacia anestésica y el índice terapéutico de esas drogas. Este estudio visó la preparación, caracterización y evaluación de la eficacia anestésica de los complejos de inclusión de la mezcla enantiomérica de la bupivacaína (S75-R25) y de la bupivacaína racémica (S50-R50) con hidroxipropilb-ciclodextrina (HPb-CD) comparándolos con las preparaciones actualmente utilizadas en la clínica. MÉTODO: Los complejos de inclusión fueron preparados mezclándose cantidades apropiadas de HPb-CD y S50-R50 ó S75-R25 en las razones molares (1:1 y 1:2) y caracterizados por estudios de solubilidad de fases. Se determinaron las constantes de afinidad (K) de cada AL por la HPb-CD. Los bloqueos motor y sensorial inducidos por las drogas libres y complejadas fueron evaluados en ratones, a través del bloqueo del nervio ciático. Para la realización de los experimentos, se utilizaron tres concentraciones de AL: 0,125; 0,25 y 0,5%. RESULTADOS: Los estudios de solubilidad indicaron la formación de complejos de inclusión de S50-R50 y S75-R25 con HPb-CD, con valores de constante de afinidad (K) análogos para los dos anestésicos: 14,7 M-1 (S50-R50: HP-bCD) y 14,3 M-1 (S75-R25: HP-bCD). Las pruebas en animales mostraron que la complejidad potenció el bloqueo nervioso diferencial inducido por los AL: i) la duración del bloqueo motor inducido por S75-R25 fue análogo al del S50-R50, pero menos intenso (p < 0,001). Ya los complejos, S50-R50HPb-CD y S75-R25 HPb-CD redujeron la latencia (p < 0,01 y p < 0,05, respectivamente) sin modificar la intensidad del bloqueo motor (Emáx), con relación a las drogas libres; ii) la evaluación del bloqueo sensorial mostró un aumento en la intensidad de la analgesia con los sistemas S50-R50 HPb-CD (2 veces, p < 0,001) y S75-R25 HPb-CD (1,5-1,8 veces; p < 0,01 y p < 0,001, respectivamente), en las dos proporciones molares (1:1 y 1:2, AL:CD), además del prolongamiento de la duración del efecto analgésico, cuando comparados a las formulaciones S50-R50 y S75-R25. CONCLUSIONES: Los efectos analgésicos más pronunciados logrados después de la complexación con HPb-CD muestran que ambas formulaciones, S50-R50 HPb-CD y S75-R25 HPb-CD, son de grande interés para el alivio del dolor en el período postoperatorio, con la ventaja de ser administradas en menores concentraciones. Mientras, hay que resaltar que la mezcla enantiomérica de bupivacaína (S75-R25), por ser una droga menos tóxica, representa una alternativa en el desarrollo de formulaciones de liberación controlada más seguras y eficaces de que con la bupivacaína racémica (S50-R50).BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Bupivacaine-induced side effects have led to the search for new local anesthetics (LA) with similar potency and lower toxicity, such as bupivacaine enantiomeric mixture (S75-R25). Drug-delivery systems for LA in carriers, such as cyclodextrins (CD), have been developed to improve anesthetic potency and therapeutic index of those drugs. This study aimed at preparing, characterizing and evaluating the anesthetic efficacy of inclusion complexes of bupivacaine enantiomeric mixture (S75-R25) and racemic bupivacaine (S50-R50) with hydroxypropylb- cyclodextrin (HPb-CD) comparing them to clinically available preparations. METHODS: Inclusion complexes were obtained by mixing appropriate volumes of HPb-CD and S50-R50 or S75-R25 to final 1:1 or 1:2 molar ratios and were characterized by phase solubility experiments. Affinity constants (K) were determined between HPb-CD and each LA. Motor and sensory blocks induced by plain or complexed LA formulations were evaluated in mice by sciatic nerve block. Three LA concentrations were used during the experiment: 0.125, 0.25 and 0.5%. RESULTS: Solubility experiments results were indicative of S50-R50:HPb-CD and S75-R25:HPb-CD complexation, with similar affinity constant (K) values: 14.7 M-1 and 14,3 M-1, respectively. In vivo experiments have shown that complexation has enhanced differential nerve blockade induced by LA: i) motor blockade duration induced by S75-R25 was similar, to the induced by but less intense S50-R50 ( p < 0.001). S50-R50HPb-CD and S75-R25HPb-CD complexes have decreased onset (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05, respectively), without changing motor block intensity (Emax) as compared to plain drugs; ii) sensory block evaluation has revealed higher analgesic intensity with S50-R50HPb-CD (2-fold, p < 0.001) and S75-R25HPb-CD (1.5-1.8-fold, p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively) with both molar ratios (1:1 and 1:2, LA:CD), in addition to prolonging analgesic effect as compared to S50-R50 and S75-R25. CONCLUSIONS: More pronounced analgesic effects obtained by complexation with HPb-CD have shown that both formulations, S50-R50HPb-CD and S75-R25HPb-CD, are very useful for postoperative pain relief, requiring lower LA concentrations. Nevertheless, it is worth noticing that S75-R25 - being less toxic than racemic bupivacaine - is an interesting alternative for the development of more effective and safe drug-delivery systems as compared to racemic bupivacaine (S50-R50).

JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: O desenvolvimento de sistemas de liberação controlada tem sido alvo de pesquisas há pelo menos quatro décadas. Desde que foi sugerida sua aplicação na indústria farmacêutica, muitos resultados foram obtidos, especialmente na manipulação molecular de carreadores e no estudo de suas interações com as drogas encapsuladas. Esses novos carreadores têm a vantagem de contornar propriedades físico-químicas limitantes (como a solubilidade aquosa ou em membranas) das drogas encapsuladas, melhorando assim a farmacodinâmica (potencialização do efeito terapêutico), farmacocinética (controle da absorção e distribuição tecidual) e os efeitos toxicológicos (redução da toxicidade local e sistêmica) das mesmas. Entre os principais carreadores, destacam-se os lipossomas e as ciclodextrinas, que vêm trazendo inúmeras vantagens no desenvolvimento de formulações para liberação controlada de anestésicos locais. Este trabalho de revisão objetiva descrever a interação de anestésicos locais com lipossomas ou ciclodextrinas, o desenvolvimento das pesquisas básica e clínica nessa área, além da aplicabilidade terapêutica dessas formulações. CONTEÚDO: Lipossomas têm a capacidade de veicular drogas em órgãos-alvo, disponibilizando apenas uma fração - liberação controlada - para o sítio de ação. Já as ciclodextrinas alteram a intensidade e a duração do efeitos das drogas através da baixa absorção sistêmica do complexo. Pesquisas básicas e clínicas apontam como vantagens do uso de anestésicos locais encapsulados em lipossomas ou complexados com ciclodextrinas a liberação lenta da droga que prolonga a duração da anestesia e reduz a toxicidade para os sistemas cardiovascular e nervoso central. CONCLUSÕES: Embora várias pesquisas ainda estejam em andamento, os sistemas de liberação controlada de anestésicos locais indicam uma nova direção no desenvolvimento de formulações anestésicas mais eficazes e seguras.JUSTIFICATIVA Y OBJETIVOS: El desenvolvimiento de sistemas de liberación controlada ha sido motivo de pesquisas desde cuatro décadas por lo menos. Desde que fue sugerida su aplicación en la industria farmacéutica, fueron obtenidos muchos resultados, especialmente en la manipulación molecular de carreadores y en el estudio de sus interacciones con las drogas encapsuladas. Esos nuevos carreadores tienen la ventaja de contornar propiedades físico-químicas limitantes (como la solubilidad acuosa o en membranas) de las drogas encapsuladas, mejorando asi la farmacodinámica (potencialización del efecto terapéutico), farmacocinética (control de la absorción y distribución de tejidos) y los efectos toxicológicos (reducción de la toxicidad local y sistémica) de las mismas. Entre los principales carreadores, se destacan los liposomas y las ciclodextrinas, que están trayendo innúmeras ventajas en el desarrollo de formulaciones para liberación controlada de anestésicos locales. Este trabajo de revisión, objetiva describir la interacción de anestésicos locales con liposomas o ciclodextrinas, el desarrollo de las pesquisas básica y clínica en esa área, además de la aplicabilidad terapéutica de esas formulaciones. CONTENIDO: Liposomas tienen la capacidad de transportar drogas en órganos-clave, disponibilizando apenas una fracción - liberación controlada - para el sitio de acción. Ya las ciclodextrinas alteran la intensidad y la duración de efectos de las drogas a través de la baja absorción sistémica del complejo. Pesquisas básicas y clínicas, apuntan como ventajas del uso de anestésicos locales encapsulados en liposomas o complejos con ciclodextrinas la liberación lenta de la droga que prolonga la duración de la anestesia, y reduce la toxicidad para los sistemas cardiovascular y nervioso central. CONCLUSIONES: No obstante varias pesquisas están aún en andamiento, los sistemas de liberación controlada de anestésicos locales indican una nueva dirección en el desarrollo de formulaciones anestésicas más eficaces y seguras.BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Many researchers in the last four decades have been devoted to the development of drug-delivery systems. Since its first application in the pharmaceutical industry, many results have been obtained especially in the molecular manipulation of carriers and their interaction with encapsulated drugs. These new carriers have the advantage of bypassing encapsulated drugs restraining physicochemical properties (such as water or membrane solubility), thus improving pharmacodynamics (therapeutic effect potentiation), pharmacokinetics (control of tissue absorption and distribution) and toxic effects (lower local and systemic toxicity). Liposomes and cyclodextrins are among the most important carriers which have shown to be quite advantageous in the development of drug-delivery systems for local anesthetics. This study aimed at reviewing the interaction of local anesthetics with liposomes and cyclodextrins, the development of basic and applied research on the field, in addition to therapeutic applicability of these formulations. CONTENTS: Liposomes have the ability to control drug delivery to target tissues, fractionating drug release in its site of action. Cyclodextrins, on the other hand, change intensity and duration of effects due to low systemic drug absorption. Basic and clinical studies have pointed out that the administration of local anesthetics in liposome or cyclodextrin formulations induces slow release of the drugs, prolonging the anesthetic action and decreasing cardiac and nervous systems toxicity. CONCLUSIONS: Although studies are still in progress, drug-delivery systems are flagging a new direction for the development of safer and more effective local anesthetic formulations.

Abstract Background: Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small membrane-bound vesicles of growing interest in vetetinary parasitology. The aim of the present report was to provide the first isolation, quantification and protein characterization of EVs from buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) sera infected with Theileria spp. Methods: Infected animals were identified through optical microscopy and PCR. EVs were isolated from buffalo sera by size-exclusion chromatography and characterized using western blotting analysis, nanoparticle tracking analysis and transmission electron microscopy. Subsequently, the proteins from isolated vesicles were characterized by mass spectrometry. Results: EVs from buffalo sera have shown sizes in the 124-140 nm range and 306 proteins were characterized. The protein-protein interaction analysis has evidenced biological processes and molecular function associated with signal transduction, binding, regulation of metabolic processes, transport, catalytic activity and response to acute stress. Five proteins have been shown to be differentially expressed between the control group and that infected with Theileria spp., all acting in the oxidative stress pathway. Conclusions: EVs from buffaloes infected with Theileria spp. were successfully isolated and characterized. This is an advance in the knowledge of host-parasite relationship that contributes to the understanding of host immune response and theileriosis evasion mechanisms. These findings may pave the way for searching new EVs candidate-markers for a better production of safe biological products derived from buffaloes.