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To produce more diversified and more valuable commodities from a biobased economy, I have sought to upgrade ethanol into a wider range of products through cell-free platform technologies. I have built two styles of ethanol valorization system, one through acetaldehyde condensation, another through acetyl-CoA. Also, I have developed methods to power biochemical systems, one that converts electrical power into reducing equivalents and another that can regenerate ATP while co-producing acetone. I developed a 1,3-BDO production system that reached a maximum 0.16 g/L/h productivity, and, with replenishment of feedstock and enzymes, achieved a 1,3-BDO titer of 7.7 g/L. I also developed an isoprenol production system able to reach a maximum 1.0 � 0.05 mM/h productivity and 12.5 � 0.8 mM maximum titer. My ATP generator reached titers of 27 � 6 mM ATP and 59 � 15 mM acetone with maximum ATP synthesis rate of 2.8 � 0.6 mM/hour and acetone of 7.8 � 0.8 mM/hour. These results demonstrate a proof-of-concept blueprint for more diversified bioeconomy for commodity chemical productions.

Cancer treatment has become a major challenge amidst the resistance and relapse caused by the various treatments available. The PROteolysis TAargeting Chimera (PROTAC) technology involves the degradation of target protein against the inhibition by small drug molecules. The PROTACs with high potency and activity have been frequently reported; however, no PROTAC acting against cancer has reached the clinical trials. The concept of PROTACs involves the reduction in the disease-causing protein by its degradation through the ubiquitin-proteasomal enzyme system. This concept has attracted a lot of attention from both industry and academia due to its potential in drug discovery (in the form of PROTACs), which can conquer the resistance associated with current treatments of cancer. Thus, it is the need of the hour to identify and synthesize more PROTACs for a viable treatment of cancer. This article reviews the design, activity and effects produced in cancer by some recently developed PROTACs.

Background: Chaga mushroom (Inonotus obliquus) is an edible macrofungus used in traditional and folk medicine for the treatment of various gastrointestinal disorders. It has shown potent anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anticancer effects in several experimental studies, including anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects in colorectal cancer and intestinal inflammation. Whole extract or purified compound ergosterol peroxide from chaga mushroom showed anti-inflammatory mechanism via suppression of NF-κB/iNOS-COX-2 and growth inhibitory mechanism via regulation of apoptosis activation and β-catenin suppression. The diverse inflammatory and carcinogenic agents, like carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), a potent hepatotoxic chemical, cause liver damage by inducing lipid peroxidation and other oxidative damages. Aims: The study aimed to analyze the biochemical, cellular and molecular mechanisms of CCl4 induced chronic liver inflammation and carcinoma, and to analyze the effect of the extract of chaga mushroom on liver inflammation and cancer by virtue of anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Method: Physiological, histological and immunohistochemical analyses of the physiological functions and cellular functions were performed. Biochemical assays were conducted for assessing enzymatic changes in tissues. Molecular simulation and docking studies were performed for the evaluation of the molecular interaction. Results: CCl4-exposed mice exhibited a significant decrease in body weight followed by altered histopathological signatures in the liver. Supplementation of IOAE showed that treatment restored the normal structure of the tissues with large round nuclei in most of the cells. CCl4 caused a steep elevation in the levels of SGOT and SGPT to 2.32- and 1.8-fold as compared to control. The LDH level increased to 447 IU/L in CCl4 treated mice as compared to control (236 IU/L). Analysis of the oxidant enzyme pathway showed that CCl4 reduced the GSH level to 16.5 μM as compared to control (52 μM), and induced the catalase enzyme activity up to 259 U/mL as compared to control (124 U/L). These physiological and biochemical alterations were restored towards normal levels by IOAE administration. Immunohistochemical staining for caspase-3 and p53 showed that CCl4 notably increased their expressions, which were subsequently suppressed by administration of IOAE. The molecular simulation and docking studies using ergosterol peroxide from chaga mushroom with iNOS, COX-2 and TNF-α showed binding energy of -10.5, -8.9 and -9.1 Kcal/mol, respectively. These proteins interacting with ergosterol peroxide exerted an inhibitory effect on these critical proinflammatory signaling proteins. Conclusions: The results point out that IOAE is able to prevent damage of hepatic cells caused by CCl4 in mouse models through anti-inflammatory and growth inhibitory mechanisms, which can be utilized for natural prevention of liver toxicity.

Lignocellulosic biomass is the most abundant renewable energy resource on earth that can be utilized for biofuel production. However, its utilization in biofuel production is limited due to its complex structure and recalcitrant nature. The anaerobic biomass degradation can be improved by recruiting suitable microbes with efficient enzyme system and utilizing termite gut microorganisms represents a prospective way to do so. This review provides an overview of termites and their types along with their associated symbionts, their distribution and enzyme production throughout the gut segments for efficient lignocellulosic biomass degradation. Furthermore, application of omics to elucidate the role and relationship of individual host termite, isolated symbiont, host-microbes interaction and microbe-microbe interaction, their physiology, and biochemistry has been thoroughly discussed. In addition, the potential of termite gut microbiota and future perspective for biomethanation of lignocellulosic biomass has been highlighted. With the further advancement in omics technology, a lot more information will be unfolded and further improve our understanding of one of the most efficient natural lignocellulosic biomass utilization systems. Improved understanding of termite and its associated symbionts can result in important technological breakthroughs that will further establish the potential of termite gut microbiota for biomethanation of lignocellulosic biomass.

Although more and more precise and efficient methods of scientific research regularly arise, inhibitory analysis still remains far from being the least among the extensively used experimental approaches. Many current investigations aplly chemical inhibitors of photosystem II as instruments of scientific cognition. Novel chemical inhibitors are being screened, educed, and/or designed. New effects of the already known inhibitors are being discovered and/or significantly corrected. The review presents the generalized information on both the known inhibitors, such as diuron (3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea), dinoseb (6‑sec-butyl-2,4-dinitrophenol), and ADRY agents (agents causing Acceleration of the Deactivation Reactions of the water-splitting enzyme system Y) and recently revealed chemical inhibitors of PSII (derivatives of perfluoroisopropyldinitrobenzene and metal-organic complexes). The action of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors on a photochemical activity of PSII is also discussed.

Vetiver has a broad history of traditional medicinal uses, but only a handful of research article has reported its utility in treating diseases. But unfortunately, no work has been reported on the anti-inflammatory activity of its plant extract and inflammatory-linked diseases. Hence, the present review focuses on investigating the several presumptions which can be put forward to explain its anti-inflammatory property. Thus, for ensuring the same, all the databases like science direct, PubMed, book chapters, and other authenticated papers were thoroughly studied to present a connection between inflammation and the plant potential. After gaining enough knowledge on pathogenesis of inflammation, it has been observed that the release of mediators from the arachidonic acid metabolism pathway and generation of oxidative and nitrogen species are presented as the main reason for the occurrence of inflammation condition. The stimulation of antioxidant enzyme system network by the plant extract reduces the level of oxidative stress, creating a balance between oxidant and antioxidant system. Moreover, its antimicrobial activity will prevent the biological source of stimulation towards injury and the CNS depressant effect will subside the pain of inflammation. Amalgamating all the factors together, the plant can be utilized as anti-inflammatory can be and also can be proved as a beneficial perspective in the treatment of inflammation-linked disorders.

In sleep apnea, airway obstruction causes intermittent hypoxia (IH). In animal studies, IH-dependent hypertension is associated with loss of vasodilator hydrogen sulfide (H(2)S), and increased H(2)S activation of sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity in the carotid body. We previously reported that inhibiting cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE) to prevent H(2)S synthesis augments vascular resistance in control rats. The goal of this study was to evaluate the contribution of IH-induced changes in CSE signaling to increased blood pressure and vascular resistance. We hypothesized that chronic IH exposure eliminates CSE regulation of blood pressure (BP) and vascular resistance. In rats instrumented with venous catheters, arterial telemeters, and flow probes on the main mesenteric artery, the CSE inhibitor dl-propargylglycine (PAG, 50 mg/kg/day i.v. for 5 days) increased BP in Sham rats but decreased BP in IH rats [in mmHg, Sham (n = 11): 114 ± 4 to 131 ± 6; IH (n = 8): 131 ± 8 to 115 ± 7 mmHg, P < 0.05]. PAG treatment increased mesenteric vascular resistance in Sham rats but decreased it in IH rats (day 5/day 1: Sham: 1.50 ± 0.07; IH: 0.85 ± 0.19, P < 0.05). Administration of the ganglionic blocker hexamethonium (to evaluate SNS activity) decreased mesenteric resistance in PAG-treated Sham rats more than in saline-treated Sham rats or PAG-treated IH rats. CSE immunoreactivity in IH carotid bodies compared with those from Sham rats. However, CSE staining in small mesenteric arteries was less in arteries from IH than in Sham rats but not different in larger arteries (inner diameter > 200 µm). These results suggest endogenous H(2)S regulates blood pressure and vascular resistance, but this control is lost after IH exposure with decreased CSE expression in resistance size arteries. IH exposure concurrently increases carotid body CSE expression and relative SNS control of blood pressure, suggesting both vascular and carotid body H(2)S generation contribute to blood pressure regulation. NEW & NOTEWORTHY These results suggest that CSE’s protective role in the vasculature is impaired by simulated sleep apnea, which also upregulates CSE in the carotid body. Thus, this enzyme system can exert both pro- and antihypertensive effects and may contribute to elevated SNS outflow in sleep apnea.

A study is performed of the adsorption of lysozyme on biporous silica, silicalite-1 (silica with the structure of MFI zeolite), ZSM-5 zeolite, and two halloysite samples (natural aluminosilicate nanotubes). Adsorption isotherms are obtained, and the limiting values of adsorption and the areas on surfaces of the adsorbent per enzyme molecule are found. The maximum adsorption per unit of adsorbent mass (350 mg/g) is obtained for biporous silica along with the one per unit of surface area (0.962 mg/m2) on halloysite.

Acetyl xylan esterases are among the key enzymes in the xylan degradation enzyme system. However, acetyl xylan esterases from natural microorganisms have low expression and low enzyme activity and ...

The main structural event in the development of heart failure is the myocardial remodeling. The extracellular matrix, that was knows as, considered an inert framework of cardiomyocytes, plays an important role in cardiac remodeling. The enzyme system, primarily responsible for the degradation of the extracellular matrix, is a matrix metalloproteinases (MMP). This review examines the evidence for the participation of MMP in the myocardial remodeling and recent studies of MMP as prognostic markers. Regulation of induction and/or activation of MMP are potential therapeutic targets.

This study was designed to investigate the effect of using the recommended FAO Lactoperoxidase Enzyme System (LPS) on improving the keeping quality and increasing the shelf life of raw milk from camels at different stages of lactations. Fresh milk samples were obtained after morning milking from Camel Research Center of Khartoum University.

Although the exact timing depends on the location of the traumatic brain injury (TBI) and the amount of hemorrhage, in the absence of neurosurgical interventions it usually takes several weeks or months for spontaneous resolution of the hemorrhage or hematoma. The occasional rapid disappearance of an intracranial hemorrhage after a TBI has been well-described in the literature. However, early spontaneous disappearance of traumatic intraventricular hemorrhage (TIVH) has not previously been reported in the literature. Herein, the author described a rare case of TIVH that disappeared rapidly without surgical intervention and speculated that the thrombolytic enzyme system in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or circulation of CSF plays an important role in the rapid disappearance of TIVH.

The enzyme system mimicking Implication (IMPLY) and Inhibition (INHIB) Boolean logic gates has been designed. The same enzyme system was used to operate as the IMPLY or INHIB gate simply by reformulating the input signals. The optical analysis of the logic operation confirmed the output generation as expected for the studied logic gates. The conceptual approach to the IMPLY and INHIB logic gates allows their construction with many other enzymes operating in a similar way.

Moving cannabinoid production away from the vagaries of plant extraction and into engineered microbes could provide a consistent, purer, cheaper and environmentally benign source of these important therapeutic molecules, but microbial production faces notable challenges. An alternative to microbes and plants is to remove the complexity of cellular systems by employing enzymatic biosynthesis. Here we design and implement a new cell-free system for cannabinoid production with the following features: (1) only low-cost inputs are needed; (2) only 12 enzymes are employed; (3) the system does not require oxygen and (4) we use a nonnatural enzyme system to reduce ATP requirements that is generally applicable to malonyl-CoA-dependent pathways such as polyketide biosynthesis. The system produces ~0.5 g l−1 cannabigerolic acid (CBGA) or cannabigerovarinic acid (CBGVA) from low-cost inputs, nearly two orders of magnitude higher than yeast-based production. Cell-free systems such as this may provide a new route to reliable cannabinoid production. A cell-free system for cannabinoid production uses only low-cost inputs with 12 enzymes and can operate either aerobically or anaerobically, in addition to reducing ATP requirements by use of an engineered system for malonate-CoA biosynthesis.

Letrozole (LZL) is a non-steroidal competitive aromatase enzyme system inhibitor. The aim of this study is to improve the permeation of LZL through the skin by preparing as nanoemulsion using various numbers of oils, surfactants and co-surfactant with deionized water. Based on solubility studies, mixtures of oleic acid oil and tween 80/ transcutol p as surfactant/co-surfactant (Smix) in different percentages were used to prepare nanoemulsions (NS). Therefore, 9 formulae of (o/w) LZL NS were formulated, then pseudo-ternary phase diagram was used as a useful tool to evaluate the NS domain at Smix ratios: 1:1, 2:1 and 3:1.

Summary Chiral aromatic alcohols have received much attention due to their widespread use in pharmaceutical industries. In the asymmetric synthesis processes, the excellent performance of alcohol dehydrogenase makes it a good choice for biocatalysts. In this study, a novel and robust medium‐chain alcohol dehydrogenase RhADH from Rhodococcus R6 was discovered and used to catalyse the asymmetric reduction of aromatic ketones to chiral aromatic alcohols. The reduction of 2‐hydroxyacetophenone (2‐HAP) to (R)‐(‐)‐1‐phenyl‐1,2‐ethanediol ((R)‐PED) was chosen as a template to evaluate its catalytic activity. A specific activity of 110 U mg−1 and a 99% purity of e.e. was achieved in the presence of NADH. An efficient bienzyme‐coupled catalytic system (RhADH and formate dehydrogenase, CpFDH) was established using a two‐phase strategy (dibutyl phthalate and buffer), which highly raised the tolerated substrate concentration (60 g l−1). Besides, a broad range of aromatic ketones were enantioselectively reduced to the corresponding chiral alcohols by this enzyme system with highly enantioselectivity. This system is of the potential to be applied at a commercial scale., A novel and robust medium‐chain alcohol dehydrogenase RhADH from Rhodococcus R6 was discovered and used to catalyze the asymmetric reduction of aromatic ketones to chiral aromatic alcohols.

Vertebrate diets and digestive physiologies vary tremendously. Although the contribution of ecological and behavioral features to such diversity is well documented, the roles and identities of individual intestinal enzymes shaping digestive traits remain largely unexplored. Here, we show that the sucrase-isomaltase (SI)/maltase-glucoamylase (MGAM) dual enzyme system long assumed to be the conserved disaccharide and starch digestion framework in all vertebrates is absent in many lineages. Our analyses indicate that independent duplications of an ancestral SI gave rise to the mammalianspecific MGAM, as well as to other duplicates in fish and birds. Strikingly, the duplicated avian enzyme exhibits similar activities to MGAM, revealing an unexpected case of functional convergence. Our results highlight digestive enzyme variation as a key uncharacterized component of dietary diversity in vertebrates. Fil: Brun, Antonio. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - San Luis. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Investigaciones Biológicas de San Luis. Universidad Nacional de San Luis. Facultad de Ciencias Físico Matemáticas y Naturales. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Investigaciones Biológicas de San Luis; Argentina Fil: Mendez Aranda, Daniel. Max Planck Institute für Ornithologie; Alemania Fil: Magallanes Alba, Melisa Eliana. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - San Luis. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Investigaciones Biológicas de San Luis. Universidad Nacional de San Luis. Facultad de Ciencias Físico Matemáticas y Naturales. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Investigaciones Biológicas de San Luis; Argentina Fil: Karasov, William H.. University of Wisconsin; Estados Unidos Fil: Martínez del Rio, Carlos. University of Wyoming; Estados Unidos Fil: Baldwin, Maude W.. Max Planck Institute für Ornithologie; Alemania Fil: Caviedes Vidal, Enrique Juan Raul. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - San Luis. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Investigaciones Biológicas de San Luis. Universidad Nacional de San Luis. Facultad de Ciencias Físico Matemáticas y Naturales. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Investigaciones Biológicas de San Luis; Argentina

Different analytical (enzyme system and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)) and statistical (single and multiple regressions) approaches were used to predict in vivo standardized pre-caecal digestibility (PCD) of crude protein (CP) and amino acids (AA) in cereal grains for growing pigs as well as in vitro nitrogen (N) solubility. Furthermore, different chemical and physical characteristics were categorized (e.g. crude nutrients, AA, minerals, fibre components or combinations of these) and used for generating prediction equations. There were strong linear relationships (p

The term "single enzyme nanoparticle" (SEN) refers to a chemically or biologically engineered single enzyme molecule. SENs are distinguished from conventional protein nanoparticles in that they can maintain their individual structure and enzymatic activity following modification. Furthermore, SENs exhibit enhanced properties as biopharmaceuticals, such as reduced antigenicity, and increased stability and targetability, which are attributed to the introduction of specific moieties, such as poly(ethylene glycol), carbohydrates, and antibodies. Enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) is a crucial therapeutic option for controlling enzyme-deficiency-related disorders. However, the unfavorable properties of enzymes, including immunogenicity, lack of targetability, and instability, can undermine the clinical significance of ERT. As shown in the cases of Adagen®, Revcovi®, Palynziq®, and Strensiq®, SEN can be an effective technology for overcoming these obstacles. Based on these four licensed products, we expect that additional SENs will be introduced for ERT in the near future. In this article, we review the concepts and features of SENs, as well as their preparation methods. Additionally, we summarize different types of enzyme deficiency disorders and the corresponding therapeutic enzymes. Finally, we focus on the current status of SENs in ERT by reviewing FDA-approved products.

The transition behavior of Gibbs monolayers of biomolecules at the air/water interface, and the sustainability of their three-dimensional structure during heating by adsorption/immobilization on in...

The using in literature approaches to modeling photoacclimation and photoinhibition of marine phytoplankton and their deficiencies are analyzed. The new approach to modeling of photoadaptation with use of earlier developed quantitative description of the photosynthesis of the marine algae is considered. In base of the approach lies the idea about that that adaptation is due to light and dark destruction key components of photosynthesis (the photosynthetic pigments and enzyme system of dark reactions), on the one hand, and their restore by the biosynthesis from the products of the photosynthesis (the positive feedbacks), with another. The model scheme is presented by the concentrations and rate constants, there is the notion «quotas» not used. The model satisfactory describes the known in literature curves of photoadaptation, as well as to explain the main effects of this phenomenon.

Three β-glucosidases (Pectinex Ultra SP-L, Pectinex Ultra Clear and homemade preparation from Aspergillus niger) were immobilized using different strategies: ionic adsorption on aminated (MANAE)-agarose beads at pH 5, 7, and 9, followed by biocatalysts modification with glutaraldehyde, or on glutaraldehyde pre-activated supports. The pH of the immobilization was altered to allow different enzyme molecule orientations on the support surface. The biocatalysts from Pectinex Ultra SP-L showed the highest thermal and operational stabilities when immobilized on MANAE-agarose-glutaraldehyde at pH 7. The β-glucosidase from Pectinex Ultra Clear and from A. niger produced best results when immobilized on MANAE-agarose beads at pH 5 and 7, respectively, which was later treated with glutaraldehyde. The best immobilization results using pre-activated supports were observed for the enzyme present in Pectinex Ultra SP-L, to which the highest thermal stabilities were obtained. Remarkably, the enzyme from A. niger, immobilized on MANAE-agarose at pH 9 and subsequently treated with glutaraldehyde, produced the highest stabilization (approximately 560 times more stable than soluble enzyme at 60 °C). Results showed that optimal protocol for β-glucosidases immobilizations using the glutaraldehyde chemistry must be individually tested and tailored to each type of enzyme.

The existing models of photoacclimation and photoinhibition in marine phytoplankton and their shortcomings are analyzed. A new approach to photoadaptation modeling is proposed that uses the previously developed quantitative description of photosynthesis in marine algae. It is based on the idea that adaptation results, on the one hand, from light and dark destruction of key components of photosynthesis (photosynthetic pigments and the enzyme system of dark reactions) and on the other hand, from their biosynthetic restoration from the photosynthesis products (positive feedbacks). The model scheme involves concentrations and rate constants, while the notion of quotas is not employed. The model yields a satisfactory description of the known photoadaptation curves and explains the main effects of this phenomenon.

Many laboratory courses consist of short and seemingly unconnected individual laboratory exercises. To increase the course consistency, relevance, and student engagement, we have developed a research‐inspired and project‐based module, “From Gene to Structure and Function”. This 2.5‐week full‐day biochemistry and structural biology module covers protein expression, purification, structure solving, and characterization. The module is centered around the flavodoxin‐like protein NrdI, involved in the activation of the bacterial ribonucleotide reductase enzyme system. Through an in‐depth focus on one specific protein, the students will learn the basic laboratory skills needed in order to generate a broader knowledge and breadth within the field. With respect to generic skills, the students report their findings as a scientific article, with the aim to learn to present concise research results and write scientific papers. The current research‐inspired project has the potential of being further developed into a more discovery‐driven project and extended to include other molecular biological techniques or biochemical/biophysical characterizations. In student evaluations, this research‐inspired laboratory course has received very high ratings and been highly appreciated, where the students have gained research experience for more independent future work in the laboratory. © 2019 The Authors. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 47(3):318–332, 2019.

An accurate measurement of sweat glucose is a promising alternative to invasive finger prick blood test, and may provide effective self-monitoring of blood glucose with good patient compliance. Herein, an interrelated catalytic enzyme system has been developed, termed as CataFlower, which is composed of nanoflower MoS2 (peroxidase) decorated with GOx (glucose oxidase) and MnO2 (oxygen generator), and exhibits synergistic oxidative capability for sensitively monitoring sweat glucose. CataFlower can not only generate oxygen in situ to maximize GOx activity, but promote peroxidase-triggered H2O2 oxidation of methylene blue, resulting in sensitive colorimetric detection of glucose. We identify that CataFlower can precisely detect glucose with a detection limit of 10 μM, allowing for measuring glucose levels in different biological samples, such as blood and urine. Particularly, CataFlower is capable of monitoring dynamic changes in sweat glucose with high sensitivity and accuracy during exercise. Therefore, CataFlower provides a stepping stone to eliminate invasive blood tests, significantly improving the diagnosis and management of diabetes mellitus.

In this chapter you will be introduced to some of the fundamentals of the process of biological N2 fixation and the nature of the enzyme complex, nitrogenase, which mediates the conversion of N2 to NH3. The process is unique in that, so far as is known, only prokaryotic microbes possess this enzyme system. Despite the cumbersome nature of the nitrogenase enzyme complex, about one half–two thirds of the global supply of fixed N comes through biological N2 fixation. Nitrogen fixation occurs in a wide range of habitats wherever sufficient energy supplies and appropriate environmental conditions exist.

Owing to the trouble of massive enzyme system and industrial prospective, microbial cellulases have exhibited their probable proposal for research, in numerous industrial developments including pulp and paper, textiles, laundry, production of biofuel, brewing, agriculture, and food and feed industry, by the academic and industrial research groups equally. The main components of numerous agricultural residues are cellulose and hemicellulose (75%–80%), while merely 14% is lignin found. Massive impairment of probably esteemed nourishing residents and deterioration of the atmosphere caused thru yearly accretion of these agricultural residues, which can harvest food, feed, fuel, and chemical minerals when treated. Presently, to the recent acquaintance of cellulase manufacture and the trials in cellulase research, substantial considerations have been dedicated especially in the way of refining the course economics of different productions. Application of cellulases in different industries that focuses on the technological and scientific advances and the future perspectives will be discussed in this paper.

In Chapter 10, we discussed the single-molecular enzyme kinetics, which consists of a set of unimolecular, or pseudo first-order reactions representing conformational transitions of an individual enzyme molecule.

This chapter deals with the methods of stabilizing enzymes or extending their life under the conditions of use and storage. Enzymes are biological catalysts that are increasingly used in industrial processes and other applications because of their many advantages. Unlike conventional catalysts, enzymes are easily damaged if the conditions of use differ much relative to those normally tolerated by lifeforms. Stability can be improved by methods such as the formation of chemical crosslinks between different parts of the enzyme molecule to restrict its ability to unfold; chemical modification of the surface functional groups on the enzyme molecule to change the surface hydrophobicity and improve compatibility with a given solvent; and changes in the primary structure of the polypeptide chain to enhance the magnitude of the forces responsible for maintaining the structure of the enzyme. These and other methods of stabilization are discussed.

In the past few decades, using traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs), including Panax ginseng as pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and healthcare products has expanded globally. TCMs can exert its pharmacological effects as a single herb, as well as in a variety of herbal compatibility forms. And in general, ginseng is orally administered, which make their constituents inevitably brought into contact with gastrointestinal microbiota in the intestine. The gut microbiota possesses the corresponding enzyme system that can metabolize some of the ginsenoside prototypes, which found almost exclusively in ginseng and regarding as the major pharmacological ingredients with therapeutic activities, into metabolites with higher bioavailability and efficacy. Therefore, understanding the role of the gut microbiota in ginsenosides metabolism in vivo and therefore targeting the specific bacterial strains/metabolic function by probiotics, prebiotics, or other micro-ecological modulators potentially to become an attractive approach to enhance the ginseng efficiency.