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Pollination specialists are increasingly threatened worldwide, especially in intensively-managed durian orchards where loss of pollinators may lead to reduced fruit production. In tropical plant communities where plant species attract multiple species of pollinators, specialists may have advantages over generalists. The present study examined the pollination ecology of durian (Durio zibethinus) in intensively and non-intensively managed orchards in suburban habitats of Nakhon Nayok and Chanthaburi provinces, respectively, in Thailand. Manual-pollination yielded the greatest fruit set 60 d after pollination, followed by open pollination (mostly by pteropodid bats), and insect pollination, while non-pollinated flowers had no fruit set. Eonycteris spelaea was the major bat pollinator in both provinces. Bats found in suburban habitat of Nakhon Nayok were mostly Eonycteris spelaea (67%). Pollen of at least five plant species was found on Eonycteris spelaea fur, including Musa sp., Oroxylum indicum, Durio zibethinus, Bombax valetonii and an unknown species. Pollen of only two species, Oroxylum indicum and Musa sp., was observed on Cynopterus sphinx fur. The non-intensive orchards in Nakhon Nayok, where mixed-species gardens are maintained under more naturalistic conditions, might offer higher fruit set on average. Such conditions might maintain higher bats capture rate of natural pollinators and reduce the risk of pollination failure in comparison with intensively-managed durian orchards.

Durian is economically important for local livelihoods in Indonesia. Our study investigated the identity of pollinators of semi-wild durian and subsequently estimated the economic contribution of these pollination services. We conducted pollination exclusion experiments and deployed camera traps at durian trees from October 2017 to January 2018 in an area where the local economy depends on durian production in West Sulawesi, Indonesia. Durian flowers in the experiment that were accessible to bats had significantly higher fruit set compared with flowers that were completely closed to animal visitors or those that could only be visited by insects, suggesting that bats were the primary durian pollinator. The small, highly nectarivorous cave nectar bat (Eonycteris spelaea) visited more inflorescences (n = 25) and had visits of much longer duration (X = 116.87 sec/visit) than the two species of flying foxes: Pteropus alecto (n = 7 inflorescences visited, X = 11.07 sec/visit) and Acerodon celebensis (n = 6 inflorescences visited, X = 11.60 sec/visit). Visits by large and small bats were influential in differentiating successful durian fruit production from unsuccessful. Using a bioeconomic approach, we conservatively estimate that bat pollination services are valued at ~$ 117/ha/fruiting season. By demonstrating an ecological link between bats and the local economy, this research provides an urgent message for Southeast Asian governments regarding the need to promote bat conservation in order to increase the production of durian grown under semi-wild conditions.

The study aimed to observe the prevalence, intensity, and relationship of ectoparasites in bats in the southern region of Lombok Island, West Nusa Tenggara. The study was conducted in March 2018-February 2019. Bat samples were obtained from four caves in the southern part of Lombok Island. These caves include the Gale-gale Bangkang Cave, Buwun Cave, Semeti Cave, and the Raksasa Cave. Trapping bat samples for identification is done by using the Mist net. While taking ectoparasite samples is done by combing using a toothbrush. The organisms found were collected into sample bottles containing 70% alcohol. Analysis of the relationship between ectoparasites and bats was done by collecting data on ectoparasite species and ectoparasite abundance in each bat species, then further analysis was carried out to find the value of the Similarity Index (IS). The similarity index found is then cluster analysis. Cluster analysis aims to group based on similarity using Euclidean distance. The results of the study stated that based on the examination of 9 species of bats there were 14 species of ectoparasites identified. The value of the highest prevalence of ectoparasites in Gale-gale Cave Bangkang is found in Cyclopodia horsfieldii at 80% with an intensity value of 0.63, in Buwun cave is Amblyomma sp. of 100% with an intensity value of 1.50, in Cave Kenculit is Amblyomma sp. of 40% with an intensity value of 4.25 and in the Raksasa Cave is Cyclopodia horsfieldii of 70% with an intensity value of 0.71. While the relationship between the existence of ectoparasites in the bat's body states that the ectoparasite group in the body of bats can be grouped into 5 community groups. Group I consisted of the ectoparasite community in the Macroglossus minimus , and Rosettus an amplxicaudatus with Euclidean distance of 11,916. Group 2, the ectoparasite community was in Miniopterus pusillus, Rhinopoma microphyllum and Rhinolopus acuminatus with Euclidean distance of 15,362. Group 3 ectoparasite communities in the Chaerephon plicata and Taphozous melanopagon with Euclidean distances of 6,000. Group 4, the ectoparasite community only inhabited Eonycteris spelaea with Euclidean distance of 27,423. And group 5 also only inhabits Rhinolopus simplex with Euclidean distance of 46,293.

Ng WS, JayasilanMA, WongSY. 2020. Floral biology and pollination strategy of Durio(Malvaceae) in Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo.Biodiversitas 21:5579-5594.This study was carried out to investigate on the floweringmechanisms of four Duriospeciesin Sarawak. The anthesis startedin the afternoon(D. graveolensand D. zibethinus), evening (D. kutejensis) or midnight (D. griffithii); and lasted between 11.5 hours (D. griffithii) to 20 hours (D. graveolens). All four Duriospecies are generalists. Individuals of a fruitbat (Eonycteris spelaea, Pteropodidae) are considered as the main pollinator for D. graveolens, D. kutejensis,and D. zibethinuswhile spiderhunter (Arachnothera, Nectariniidae) is also proposed as a primary pollinator for D. kutejensis. Five invertebrate taxa were observed as secondary or inadvertent pollinators of Duriospp.: honeybee, Apis sp. (Apidae), stingless bee, Tetrigonasp. (Apidae), nocturnal wasp, Provespasp. (Vespidae), pollen beetle (Nitidulidae), and thrip (Thysanoptera). Honey bees and stingless beespollinated all four Duriospecies. Pollen beetles were found to pollinate D. griffithiiand D. graveolenswhile nocturnal wasps were found to pollinate D. kutejensisand D. zibethinus. Thrips were found to pollinate D. griffithiionly. Floral rewards include nectar, pollenand staminodes. The nectar productionof D. graveolens, D. kutejensis,and D. zibethinusincreased from the start of anthesis until just after midnight but decreased from then onwards. Duriogriffithiiproducedconsistent nectar concentration with inconsistent volume. Durio graveolens,D. griffithii, and D. zibethinusare partially self-incompatible

Bats are rich reservoirs of viruses, including several high consequence zoonoses. In this study, high throughput sequencing was used to characterize the virome through a longitudinal study of a captive colony of lesser dawn bats, species Eonycteris spelaea, in Singapore. This study utilized viral RNA extracted from swabs of four body sites per bat per timepoint. Swabs of the exterior of the bat (head and body) were used to evaluate virus populations and demonstrate utility as a sample site for future surveillance to extrapolate population-level infection. Through unbiased shotgun and target-enrichment sequencing, we identified both the known and previously unknown viruses of zoonotic relevance and defined the population persistence and temporal patterns of viruses from families that have the capacity to jump the species barrier. We observed the population persistence of three zoonotic-related viral families that are known to be associated with spillover from bats to humans: Paramyxoviridae, Reoviridae, and Coronaviridae. To our knowledge, this is the first study that combines probe-based viral enrichment with high-throughput sequencing or that creates a viral profile from multiple swab sites on individual bats and their cohorts. This work demonstrates temporal patterns of the lesser dawn bat virome, including several novel viruses. Noninvasive surveillance methods that target the body of bats not only detect viruses shed within the colony but can also represent viral populations dispersed throughout the entire colony. New knowledge of persistent viral families should inform future directions for the biosurveillance of viruses that have the potential to cross the species barrier from bats to humans or other amplifying hosts.

Rousettus bat coronavirus GCCDC1 (RoBat-CoV GCCDC1) is a cross-family recombinant coronavirus that has previously only been reported in wild-caught bats in Y&uacute, nnan, China. We report the persistence of a related strain in a captive colony of lesser dawn bats captured in Singapore. Genomic evidence of the virus was detected using targeted enrichment sequencing, and further investigated using deeper, unbiased high throughput sequencing. RoBat-CoV GCCDC1 Singapore shared 96.52% similarity with RoBat-CoV GCCDC1 356 (NC_030886) at the nucleotide level, and had a high prevalence in the captive bat colony. It was detected at five out of six sampling time points across the course of 18 months. A partial segment 1 from an ancestral Pteropine orthoreovirus, p10, makes up the recombinant portion of the virus, which shares high similarity with previously reported RoBat-CoV GCCDC1 strains that were detected in Y&uacute, nnan, China. RoBat-CoV GCCDC1 is an intriguing, cross-family recombinant virus, with a geographical range that expands farther than was previously known. The discovery of RoBat-CoV GCCDC1 in Singapore indicates that this recombinant coronavirus exists in a broad geographical range, and can persist in bat colonies long-term.

Southern China is a hot spot of emerging infectious diseases, in which diverse species of bats dwell, a large group of flying mammals considered natural reservoirs for zoonotic viruses. Recently, divergent filoviruses (FiVs) have been identified in bats within this region, which pose a potential risk to public health, but the true infection situation in bats remains largely unclear. Here, 689 archived bat serum samples were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Western blotting, and neutralization assay to investigate the seroprevalence and cross-reactivity of four divergent FiVs and two other viruses (rabies virus and Tuhoko pararubulavirus 1) of different families within the order Mononegavirales. Results showed no cross-antigenicity between FiVs and other mononegaviruses but different cross-reactivity among the FiVs themselves. The total FiV seroreactive rate was 36.3% (250/689), with infection by the indigenous Chinese FiV DH04 or an antigenically related one being the most widely and the most highly prevalent. Further viral metagenomic analysis of fruit bat tissues also identified the gene sequence of a novel FiV. These results indicate the likely prevalence of other so far unidentified FiVs within the Chinese bat population, with frugivorous Rousettus leschenaultii and Eonycteris spelaea bats and insectivorous Myotis horsfieldii and Miniopterus schreibersii bats being their major reservoirs. IMPORTANCE Bats are natural hosts of many FiVs, from which diverse FiVs were serologically or virologically detected in Africa, Europe, and East Asia. Recently, very divergent FiVs were identified in the Chinese bat population, but their antigenic relationship with other known FiVs remains unknown. Here, we conducted serological characterization and investigation of Chinese indigenous FiVs and prototypes of other viruses in bats. Results indicated that Chinese indigenous FiVs are antigenically distant to other FiVs, and infection of novel or multiple FiVs occurred in Chinese bats, with FiV DH04 or an antigenically related one being the most widely and the most highly prevalent. Additionally, besides Rousettus leschenaultii and Eonycteris spelaea bats, the insectivorous Myotis horsfieldii and M. schreibersii bats are highly preferential hosts of FiVs. Seroreactive and viral metagenomic results indicated that more as yet unknown bat-borne FiVs circulate in Southern China, and to uncover them further, investigation and timely surveillance is needed.

This study investigated trace elements in the different organs of Eonycteris spelaea, a hill cave from the Bhuban Hills of Sonai Reserve Forest, Cachar, Assam (India). Six bats were collected from the site and concentrations of four trace elements (Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn) were examined from the tissues of liver, lungs, kidney, and patagium using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometer (graphite furnace model—Analytic Jena Vario-6). The results of the study revealed that concentration of essential trace elements in the body tissues of E. spelaea were less than the maximum permissible limit. During the study, it was found that the concentration of copper in all the four organs are of the following order: liver (3 ± 0.11 μg/g dw) > lungs (2.4 ± 0.14 μg/g dw) > kidney (1.8 ± 0.10 μg/g dw) > patagium (1.8 ± 0.06 μg/g dw). For zinc, this sequence was kidney (61.8 ± 0.32 μg/g dw) > liver (61.2 ± 0.14 μg/g dw) > lungs (58.8 ± 0.19 μg/g dw) > patagium (46.8 ± 0.16 μg/g dw). For manganese, kidney (1.2 ± 0.15 μg/g dw) > lungs (0.6 ± 0.13 μg/g dw) > liver (0.6 ± 0.11 μg/g dw) > patagium (0.6 ± 0.10 μg/g), and for iron, it was liver (98.4 ± 0.22 μg/g) > lungs (78.6 ± 0.47 μg/g dw) > kidney (25.8 ± 0.23 μg/g dw) > patagium (16.2 ± 0.26 μg/g dw). Analysis of variance revealed significant differences (d.f. = 15, F = 44.84, P

The cave nectar bat, Eonycteris spelaea, is one of the three fruit bats in mainland Southeast Asia that roost in caves, unlike other fruit bats roosting in the forest. This bat species is an important pollinator for many plant species, including economically important crops including durian, petai and jackfruit. Hence, this study was conducted to determine the population size of cave nectar bat (Eonycteris spelaea) at Gunung Reng, Kelantan, Malaysia, since no information was recorded for conservation purposes. We determined the bat population size using the photographic estimation method at the 13 E. spelaea roosts (5 times per roost) found inside Gunung Reng for 20 days (4-30 August 2019). Our bat population size estimate resulted in about 207 to 344 individuals of E. spelaea (F(4,0) = 5.66, p-value < 0.05). This estimate is a relatively modest population size of bats in an isolated limestone karst surrounded by human-dominated habitats. Though Eonycteris spelaea is listed as Least Concern in the IUCN Red List, it is an important bat species ecologically and economically, contributing to the fruit agriculture economy in Jeli, Kelantan. Future studies should incorporate a combination of bat census techniques with long term planning in mind to completely understand the population dynamics of this paramount bat species.

Bats are unique mammals that are reservoirs of high levels of virus diversity. Although several of these viruses are zoonotic, the majority are not. Astroviruses, transmitted fecal-orally, are commonly detected in a wide diversity of bat species, are prevalent at high rates and are not thought to directly infect humans. These features make astroviruses useful in examining virus evolutionary history, epidemiology in the host, and temporal shedding trends. Our study screened for the presence of astroviruses in bats in Singapore, reconstructed the phylogenetic relations of the polymerase genes and tested for population characteristics associated with infection. Of the seven species screened, astroviruses were detected in Rhinolophus lepidus and Eonycteris spelaea. The R. lepidus sequences grouped with other Rhinolophus astrovirus sequences from China and Laos, while the Eoncyteris sequences formed a distinct clade with astroviruses from Rousettus spp. in Laos and Pteropus giganteus in Bangladesh, but not with other E. spelaea sequences. Longitudinal collections of Eonycteris feces demonstrated variable shedding. Juvenile status of bats was a risk factor for astroviruses. This study highlights the diversity of astroviruses in nectivorous and insectivorous bats in Singapore and provides a predictive framework for understanding astrovirus infection in these bats. It also suggests that in addition to host phylogenetic relatedness, host ecology, such as roosting behavior, may drive co-infections, virus maintenance and spillover.

Foraging theory predicts that generalist foragers should switch resources more readily, while specialist foragers should remain constant to preferred food resources. Plant-pollinator interactions provide a convenient system to test such predictions because floral resources are often temporally patchy, thus requiring long-lived pollinators to switch resources seasonally. Furthermore, flowering phenologies range from ‘steady-state’ (low-rewarding but highly reliable) to ‘big-bang’ (high-rewarding but ephemeral) plant species. We assessed how nectarivorous Old World bats respond to this temporally variable floral environment by examining their diets throughout the year. Over 15 months of fieldwork in southern Thailand, we simultaneously: (1) recorded the flowering phenologies of six bat-pollinated plant taxa; and (2) assessed the diets of seven common flower-visiting bat species. As predicted, the generalist nectarivore (Eonycteris spelaea) frequently switched diets and utilized both big-bang and steady-state resources, while the specialist nectarivores (Macroglossus minimus and M. sobrinus) foraged on one or two steady-state plant species year-round. Our results suggest that larger and faster bat species are able to fly longer distances in search of big-bang resources, while smaller bat species rely on highly predictable food resources. This study supports the theory that generalist foragers have flexible diets, while specialist species restrict foraging to preferred floral resources even when other floral resources are more abundant. Moreover, these findings demonstrate how plant flowering phenology and pollinator diet breadth can shape the frequency and constancy of pollinator visits; we further discuss how such interactions can influence the potential extent of gene flow within a patchy floral environment.

Excessive sugar consumption could lead to high blood glucose levels that are harmful to mammalian health and life. Despite consuming large amounts of sugar‐rich food, fruit bats have a longer lifespan, raising the question of how these bats overcome potential hyperglycemia. We investigated the change of blood glucose level in nectar‐feeding bats (Eonycteris spelaea) and fruit‐eating bats (Cynopterus sphinx) via adjusting their sugar intake and time of flight. We found that the maximum blood glucose level of C. sphinx was higher than 24 mmol/L that is considered to be pathological in other mammals. After C. sphinx bats spent approximately 75% of their time to fly, their blood glucose levels dropped markedly, and the blood glucose of E. spelaea fell to the fast levels after they spent 70% time of fly. Thus, the level of blood glucose elevated with the quantity of sugar intake but declined with the time of flight. Our results indicate that high‐intensive flight is a key regulator for blood glucose homeostasis during foraging. High‐intensive flight may confer benefits to the fruit bats in foraging success and behavioral interactions and increases the efficiency of pollen and seed disposal mediated by bats.

Bats are asymptomatic reservoir hosts for several highly pathogenic viruses. Understanding this enigmatic relationship between bats and emerging zoonotic viruses requires tools and approaches which enable the comparative study of bat immune cell populations and their functions. We show that bat genomes have a conservation of immune marker genes which delineate phagocyte populations in humans, while lacking key mouse surface markers such as Ly6C and Ly6G. Cross-reactive antibodies against CD44, CD11b, CD14, MHC II, and CD206 were multiplexed to characterize circulating monocytes, granulocytes, bone-marrow derived macrophages (BMDMs) and lung alveolar macrophages (AMs) in the cave nectar bat Eonycteris spelaea. Transcriptional profiling of bat monocytes and BMDMs identified additional markers – including MARCO, CD68, CD163, CD172α, and CD88 – which can be used to further characterize bat myeloid populations. Bat cells often resembled their human counterparts when comparing immune parameters that are divergent between humans and mice, such as the expression patterns of certain immune cell markers. A genome-wide comparison of immune-related genes also revealed a much closer phylogenetic relationship between bats and humans compared to rodents. Taken together, this study provides a set of tools and a comparative framework which will be important for unravelling viral disease tolerance mechanisms in bats.

The virosphere is largely unexplored and the majority of viruses are yet to be represented in public sequence databases. Bats are rich reservoirs of viruses, including several zoonoses. In this study, high throughput sequencing (HTS) of viral RNA extracted from swabs of four body sites per bat per timepoint is used to characterize the virome through a longitudinal study of a captive colony of fruit nectar bats, species Eonycteris spelaea in Singapore. Through unbiased shotgun and target enrichment sequencing, we identify both known and previously unknown viruses of zoonotic relevance and define the population persistence and temporal patterns of viruses from families that have the capacity to jump the species barrier. To our knowledge, this is the first study that combines probe-based viral enrichment with HTS to create a viral profile from multiple swab sites on individual bats and their cohort. This work demonstrates temporal patterns of the lesser dawn bat virome, including several novel viruses. Given the known risk for bat–human zoonoses, a more complete understanding of the viral dynamics in South-eastern Asian bats has significant implications for disease prevention and control. The findings of this study will be of interest to U.S. Department of Defense personnel stationed in the Asia-Pacific region and regional public health laboratories engaged in emerging infectious disease surveillance efforts.

38. Lesser Dawn Bat Eonycteris spelaea French: Eonyctere des cavernes / German: Kleiner Langzungenflughund / Spanish: Eonicterio pequeno Other common names: Cave Nectar Bat, Common Dawn Bat, Common Nectar Bat, Dobson's Long-tongued Fruit Bat Taxonomy. Macroglossus spelaeus Dobson, 1871, “Penang, Moulmein, the Nicobar and Andaman Islands.” Restricted by K. Andersen in 1912 to “Farm Caves, Moulmein [= Mwalamyaing, Myanmar].” Eonycteris has traditionally been considered closely related to Macroglossus, but genetic studies have determined that it is most closely related to Rousettus and is placed in a distincttribe (Eonycterini) within Rousettinae. Boundaries of subspecies need to be assessed using more complete genetic and morphological studies because specimens from the Greater Sundas seem to form a single clade that does not match current subspecific distributions. Four subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. E.s.spelaecaDobson,1871—NW,S&NEIndia(Uttarakhand,AndhraPradesh,Karnata-ka,Kerala,TamilNadu,Sikkim,Assam,Meghalaya,Nagaland,Manipur,andMizoram),WNepal,Myanmar,SChina(YunnanandSWGuangxi),Indochina,MalayPeninsula,Sumatra,andJava;alsoonAndamanIsandTiomanI. E.s.glandiferaLawrence,1939—LesserSundaIs(Bali,Lombok,Sumba,Timor),Philip-pines(includingPalawanI),SSulawesi(includingMunaI),andSulaIs(Sanana). E.s.rosenbergiiJentink,1889—NSulawesiandNMoluccas(Halmahera,Ternate,Tidore,andBacanIs). E. s. winnyae Maharadatunkamsi & Kitchener, 1997 — Borneo. Descriptive notes. Head—body 79- 5-130 mm, tail 11-25 mm, ear 17-24 mm, hindfoot 15-24 mm, forearm 61-80 mm; weight 40-79- 5 g. The Lesser Dawn Bat is small to medium-sized, with elongated narrow snout and head, a long-pointed tongue with papillae at tip, and no claw on second finger. Males are generally larger (¢.20% larger by weight) than females and have ruff of elongated hairs on side of neck. Size is the primary distinction between subspecies; winnyaeis smallest. Pelage is short and velvety. Dorsal pelage ranges from brownish gray to dark brown and rarely blackish brown,is relatively uniform in color from head to rump, and often tinged with yellow or orange around neck. Ventral pelage is generally lighter and grayer than dorsum and darker around genitals. Ears are bluntly pointed, medium in length, and dark brown; eyes are large, with dark reddish-brown irises. Wings, legs, and uropatagium are dark brown. Arms are lightly covered in brown hairs. Both sexes have unique, well-developed, kidney-shaped anal glands on either side of anus, being smaller in younger individuals and largest in breeding males (with strong and distinct odor). Tail is short, covered sparsely with hairs, and dark brownish; uropatagium attaches at base of tail and short keel at ankles, giving V-shaped gap wheretail is. Second digit of wing lacks a claw, and metacarpals offifth digit are much shorter than metacarpals of third digit; skin over wing bones is pigmented. Skull is elongated, with long rostrum; anterior premaxillae are in contact or slightly divided; and braincaseis heavily deflected downward. Dental formula for all species of Eonycterisis 12/2, C1/1,P 3/3, M 2/3 (x2) = 34. Teeth are sharp and not as reduced as in some nectarfeeding bats, although molars and premolars have considerably reduced cusps and are narrow and elongated. M,is very small, and P, is occasionally missing. Upper incisors are small and triangular, C! is relatively long, and C, is small, simple, and heavily curved outward. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 36 and FN = 68 (Java and Thailand) or 66 (Malaysia). Habitat. Primarily forested regions, especially around mangroves and plantations, from sea level up to elevations of ¢. 1000 m. Density of Lesser Dawn Bats tends to decrease at higher elevations. They seem to prefer secondary forests but have been recorded in primary forests. They typically roost in caves but have also been found in small group in attics of village huts in north-eastern India and Myanmar. Food and Feeding. Lesser Dawn Bats feed on nectar and pollen of various flowering plants, including many agriculturally important species. They are known to forage in canopies of primary and secondary forests, mangroves, gardens, orchards, and other agricultural settings. They do well in agricultural areas where they feed on nectar in flowers of many agricultural and orchard crops (especially durian, Durio, Malvaceae; Parkia, Fabaceae; and banana plantations) and serve as important pollinators. They forage by landing on a flower or hovering near it and lapping up nectar with their tongue. Their face is often covered with pollen. In Borneo, fecal samples indicated that the most regular supply of nectar for individuals in the Batu Caves came from Duabanga grandiflora (Lythraceae) and Artocarpus (Moraceae) fruit trees but also included jambu (Syzygium, Myrtaceae) and durian flowers. In the same area, individuals traveled more than 38 km to feed on nectar of coastal mangrove flowers (Sonneratia, Lythraceae) and were recorded feeding on 31 species of plants. Throughout South-east Asia, they feed on a variety of fruiting plants, such as Parkia, Duro, Musa (Musaceae), and various mangrove trees, serving as important pollinators. Data from 1155 diet records in Thailand indicated that they feed mainly on pollen and nectar of economically important food plants, such as Parkia (34% of diet), Musa (28%), and less on Eugenia (Myrtaceae), Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae), Durio zibethinus and Ceiba pentandra (Malvaceae), Sonneratia, and Cocos nucifera (Arecaceae). Throughout the year, the main dietary components were Parkia and Musa, but Durio became more important in March-April, making up 39-42% of diets. In the same study, individuals fed from flowers of up to six plants each night. In another recent study in Thailand, Lesser Dawn Bats traveled 1-17- 9 km from their roosts to find food sources and moved 0-25- 8 km between each food source, foraging at 1-3 foraging areas each night. A similar spread of food sources was also found in southern Cambodia, in which a variety of cultivated plants (Sonneratia; Bombax anceps, Malvaceae; Durio zibethinus, Musa; Parkia; Ceiba pentandra; and Oroxylum indicum) made up most of the diet throughout the year, although eucalypt species were also reported in diets. As food availability changes throughout the year, Lesser Dawn Bats alter their feeding habits relative to what plants are flowering. Breeding. Lesser Dawn Bats seem to breed throughout the year, asynchronously and without any seasonal trends at least in India and Peninsular Malaysia. There might be peaks in pregnancies associated with rainfall that results in flowering and fruiting. They might have harems in roosts as a resource defense polygynous mating system, although this has not been proven. Anal glands on both sexes might have a role in reproductive behavior because glandular size appears to be synchronized with adult male testicular cycle. Females might also signal sexual receptivity with these glands. Females give birth to one young and have two pregnancies a year. Females become sexually mature at ¢.6 months old, and males take c.1 or more years to mature. Gestation is estimated at c.120 days. Activity patterns. Lesser Dawn Bats are primarily nocturnal. They leave roosts soon after sunset and return around dawn, visiting multiple trees throughout the night to collect nectar and pollen. In Thailand, mature males seem to return early in the night (as soon as midnight); most females generally returned at dawn. Time spent outside a cave ranged from two hours and 46 minutes to nine hours and 35 minutes (average six hours and 17 minutes) in southern Thailand; mature males spent the shortest time (average five hours and 17 minutes) outside roosts, followed by immature females (six hours and 33 minutes), immature males (seven hours and 52 minutes), and mature females (eight hours and 29 minutes). Mature females might be out later to fulfill nutritional requirements during reproduction, and mature males might return earlier to defend a roosting site in a cave, which is attractive to females. These patterns have been recorded in harem-forming fruit bats (e.g. Cynopterus spp. and Bornean Spottedwinged Fruit Bats, Balionycteris maculata) and suggest Lesser Dawn Bat form harems. Males that spend less time out of the cave were also heavier than males that spend more time out of the cave, similar to other harem-forming species in which males that formed harems were heavier. In the same study, Lesser Dawn Bats spent more time out of the roost in January-April (dry season) and less time in May-July (rainy season) in southern Thailand. Seasonal differences in foraging time might be associated with food availability because during dry season, its main food source (Parkia speciosa) is no longer flowering. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Lesser Dawn Bats are highly gregarious, sedentary, and commonly found roosting in very large colonies of up to several thousand individuals (often ¢.2000 individuals), with one roost on Palawan Island estimated to exceed 50,000 individuals. These colonies are very noisy and generally occur in completely dark parts of caves. Lesser Dawn Bats make loud clapping noises with their wings while flying. They form tight roosting clusters of males and females yearround. In Thailand, mean home ranges were 460-8 ha, 518-4 ha, and 562-5 ha, depending on the sampling method. Males and females have continuous oily secretions from their anal glands that serve to mark roosting sites, define territories, or announce sexual receptiveness in females. Although generally sedentary, Lesser Dawn Bats seem to move across the Andaman Islands and breed nearly panmictically across the population, as suggested by lack of population structure; majority of genetic variation occurs within island populations rather than among them. Lesser Dawn Bats often roost with Geoffroy’s Rousettes (Rousettus amplexicaudatus). Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Lesser Dawn Bats have a wide distribution and are generally common. They seem to do well in some disturbed habitats and agricultural settings, especially in fruiting orchards and (to a lesser extent) palm oil plantations. Nevertheless, they are locally threatened by deforestation from logging and land conversion to agricultural use in some regions of South Asia. Because they roost in caves, they are also probably threatened by cave tourism and lighting as some caves, such as the Borra Caves in Andhra Pradesh, India, have become tourism hotspots. They are unfortunately listed as vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, similar to most other fruit bats in India. They are apparently under heavy hunting pressure for bushmeat in some regions of China, Cambodia, Borneo (where it has been hunted to extinction in Niah), and the Philippines. Bibliography. Acharya, Racey, McNeil et al. (2015), Acharya, Racey, Sotthibandhu & Bumrungsri (2015), Achondo et al. (2014), Andersen (1912b), Ando et al. (1980a), Aul et al. (2014), Beck & Lim (1973), Bhat et al. (1980), Bhattacharyya (1975), Bumrungsri, Harbit et al. (2008), Bumrungsri, Lang et al. (2013), Chakravarty et al. (2018), Esselstyn, Widmann & Heaney (2004), Flannery (1995a), Francis (2008a), Giannini & Simmons (2007a), Gould (1988), Heaney, Balete, Dolar et al. (1998), Heaney, Balete & Rickart (2016), Hisheh et al. (1998), Hood et al. (1988), Khan et al. (2007), Kingston & Rossiter (2004), Kruskop (2013a), Krutzsch (2005), Maharadatunkamsi & Kitchener (1997), Maharadatunkamsi et al. (2003), Mickleburgh et al. (2009), Nameeret al. (2016), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Singaravelan et al. (2009), Smith & Xie Yan (2008), Start & Marshall (1976), Struebig et al. (2005), Thavry etal. (2017), Winkelmann et al. (2000), Yong & Dhaliwal (1976)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2019, Pteropodidae, pp. 16-162 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 83-84, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6448815

Bats are reservoirs for several zoonotic pathogens, including filoviruses. Recent work highlights the diversity of bat borne filoviruses in Asia. High risk activities at the bat-human interface pose the threat of zoonotic virus transmission. We present evidence for prior exposure of bat harvesters and two resident fruit bat species to filovirus surface glycoproteins by screening sera in a multiplexed serological assay. Antibodies reactive to two antigenically distinct filoviruses were detected in human sera and to three individual filoviruses in bats in remote Northeast India. Sera obtained from Eonycteris spelaea bats showed similar patterns of cross-reactivity as human samples, suggesting them as the species responsible for the spillover. In contrast, sera from Rousettus leschenaultii bats reacted to two different virus glycoproteins. Our results indicate circulation of several filoviruses in bats and the possibility for filovirus transmission from bats to humans., Author summary Focused virus surveillance at human-wildlife interfaces enables proactive detection of potentially epidemic pathogens. Filoviruses, including ebolaviruses and marburgviruses, are pathogens with epidemic potential. They were previously detected in bats and have caused disease outbreaks in humans with a high case fatality rate. Here, we tested sera obtained from bats and humans at a high-risk interface for the presence of filovirus reactive antibodies. Human participants were engaged in annual bat hunts, possibly exposing them to bat-borne viruses. We report the exposure of humans to filoviruses that were likely derived from the two sampled bat species. The bats contain antibodies raised to presumably three distinct filoviruses. Our findings suggest bats in South Asia act as a reservoir host of a diverse range of filoviruses and filovirus spillover occurs through human exposure to these bats.

Bat flies are highly-specialized, hematophagous arthropods that are globally ubiquitous. There is little published research on bat flies (Diptera: Nycteribiidae) in Singapore and understanding the diversity of nycteribiids, host association and infestation rates can provide insight into this host-ectoparasite relationship. Nycteribiids were collected from bats trapped in Singapore (2011–2016) and identified using morphological keys. Host-ectoparasite relationships were investigated with logistic regression and Bayesian poisson regression. Nycteribiids were found to be monoxenously associated with their host bat species and host age, sex, species, and BBCI appear to contribute to differences in prevalence and intensity. Differences in host specificity between bat fly species in Singapore and their conspecifics in less disturbed habitats with higher bat biodiversity, such as Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand, suggest that the high host specificity in Singapore derives from the paucity of suitable hosts and abundance of single species roosts and not from their coevolved restrictions to them., Graphical abstract Image 1, Highlights • Nycteribiid bat flies were monoxenously associated with their host bat species. • Age, sex and bat body condition contribute to differences in prevalence and abundance rate. • Habitat availability in an urban state such as Singapore likely drives these relationships.

Astroviruses are a genetically diverse group of viruses that infect a wide range of hosts, including small mammals. Small mammals were trapped at 19 sites across Singapore from November 2011 to May 2014. Pooled oropharyngeal and rectal swabs (n = 518) and large intestine tissue (n = 107) were screened using a PCR to detect the presence of Astrovirus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) gene. Astroviruses were detected in 93 of 625 (14.9%) of samples tested, with eight of 11 species of rats, shrews, and squirrels testing positive. This is the first detection of astroviruses in seven species (Callosciurus notatus, Mus castaneus, Rattus tanezumi, Rattus tiomanicus, Sundamys annandalei, Suncus murinus and Tupaia glis). Phylogenetic analysis of 10 RdRp gene sequences revealed that astroviruses from Singapore small mammals fall in three distinct clades, one that is specific to the common treeshrew (Tupaia glis), and two comprised of multiple species. One of these includes viruses from the cave nectar bat (Eonycteris spelaea), two rodent species, and a squirrel, suggesting that virus spillover from bats to small mammals may have occurred. Our results show an increased host range for astroviruses and highlight their potential for intra- and inter-species transmission.

Summary Coronaviruses are a diverse group of viruses that infect mammals and birds. Bats are reservoirs for several different coronaviruses in the Alphacoronavirus and Betacoronavirus genera. They also appear to be the natural reservoir for the ancestral viruses that generated the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus outbreaks. Here, we detected coronavirus sequences in next‐generation sequence data created from Eonycteris spelaea faeces and urine. We also screened by PCR urine samples, faecal samples and rectal swabs collected from six species of bats in Singapore between 2011 and 2014, all of which were negative. The phylogenetic analysis indicates this novel strain is most closely related to lineage D Betacoronaviruses detected in a diverse range of bat species. This is the second time that coronaviruses have been detected in cave nectar bats, but the first coronavirus sequence data generated from this species. Bat species from which this group of coronaviruses has been detected are widely distributed across SE Asia, South Asia and Southern China. They overlap geographically, often share roosting sites and have been witnessed to forage on the same plant. The addition of sequence data from this group of viruses will allow us to better understand coronavirus evolution and host specificity.

A new site record for the Dobson‘s Long-tongued Fruit Bat Eonycteris spelaea (Pteropodidae, Chiroptera) is presented from Kerala, India. A revised distribution map of the species is also given. The morphometry of Eonycteris spelaea is discussed. DNA sequences have been deposited in GenBank.

This study aims to determine the pattern of nest selection in bat species inhabiting the Bangkang Gale-gale Cave in Prabu Village, Pujut District, Central Lombok Regency, and Tanjung Ringgit Giant Cave in Sekaroh Village, Jerowaru District, East Lombok Regency. Nests are an important component of bat life. Most types of bats live in colonies in nesting and foraging for food. This research method is descriptive exploratory by mapping cave zones, making squares, analyzing the richness and abundance of bat species at each bat nesting site. The results showed that the nest selection pattern in Gale-gale Cave, namely: Rhinolopus acuminatus, Rhinopoma microphylum, and Rhinolopus simplex were in the same group in zone / zone I. Whereas Chaerephon plicata could be found inhabiting zone / zone II, and Hipposideros ater. saevus inhabit zone / zone III. The pattern of nest selection in the Giant Cave Tanjung Ringgit, Macroglossus minimus and Eonycteris spelaea was found in both zone zone II and zone III caves. Hipposideros ater saevus and Hipposideros diadema are in the same group, namely on the border between zone II and zone III, namely the left and right sides of zone III, or not far from the water source in the cave ± 2 m above the water source, and Rosettusa amplxicaudatus inhabit zone / zone III Giant Cave Tanjung Ringgit.

Background In the past two decades, bats have emerged as an important model system to study host-pathogen interactions. More recently, it has been shown that bats may also serve as a new and excellent model to study aging, inflammation, and cancer, among other important biological processes. The cave nectar bat or lesser dawn bat (Eonycteris spelaea) is known to be a reservoir for several viruses and intracellular bacteria. It is widely distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics from India to Southeast Asia and pollinates several plant species, including the culturally and economically important durian in the region. Here, we report the whole-genome and transcriptome sequencing, followed by subsequent de novo assembly, of the E. spelaea genome solely using the Pacific Biosciences (PacBio) long-read sequencing platform. Findings The newly assembled E. spelaea genome is 1.97 Gb in length and consists of 4,470 sequences with a contig N50 of 8.0 Mb. Identified repeat elements covered 34.65% of the genome, and 20,640 unique protein-coding genes with 39,526 transcripts were annotated. Conclusions We demonstrated that the PacBio long-read sequencing platform alone is sufficient to generate a comprehensive de novo assembled genome and transcriptome of an important bat species. These results will provide useful insights and act as a resource to expand our understanding of bat evolution, ecology, physiology, immunology, viral infection, and transmission dynamics.

A study on the role of bats as pollinating and seed dispersal agents was conducted at Kenyir forest area, Terengganu. The objectives of this study were to identify the species of bats that potentially act as pollinating and seed dispersal agents at Kenyir forest area and to determine the plant species visited by this bats from the pollen types and seeds collected from the bats. In this study, six pollen types were recorded including Ceiba pentandra, Melaleuca sp., Musa sp., Oroxylum indicum, Parkia sp. and Sonneratia sp. From the total of eight species of bats caught at the study area, only Balionycteris maculata, Cynopterus brachyotis and Eonycteris spelaea were identified as pollinating agents. Cynopterus brachyotis carried the highest number of pollen types which was six, with the highest number of pollen grains was from Musa sp. Balionycteris maculata and E. spelaea on the other hand carried five and four pollen types respectively, with Parkia sp. pollen grains collected the most from both species. Cynopterus brachyotis, C. horsefieldi and E. spelaea were the fruit bats that act as seed dispersal agents for five different Ficus sp. Not only the fruits were ingested, four fruits of three Ficus sp. were found to be carried by the bats in flight. Our study indicates the important of pteropodid bats particularly C. brachyotis as pollinator and seed dispersal at the study area.

Background Intense landscaping often alters the plant composition in urban areas. Knowing which plant species that pollinators are visiting in urban areas is necessary for understanding how landscaping impacts biodiversity and associated ecosystem services. The cave nectar bat, Eonycteris spelaea, is an important pollinator for many plants and is often recorded in human-dominated habitats. Previous studies of the diet of E. spelaea relied on morphological identification of pollen grains found in faeces and on the body of bats and by necessity disregarded other forms of digested plant material present in the faeces (i.e., plant juice and remnants). The main objective of this study was to examine the diet of the nectarivorous bat, E. spelaea, roosting in an urban cave at Batu Caves, Peninsular Malaysia by identifying the plant material present in the faeces of bats using DNA metabarcoding. Methods Faeces were collected under the roost of E. spelaea once a week from December 2015 to March 2016. Plant DNA was extracted from the faeces, Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplified at ITS2 and rbcL regions and mass sequenced. The resultant plant operational taxonomic units were searched against NCBI GenBank for identification. Results A total of 55 species of plants were detected from faeces of E. spelaea including Artocarpus heterophyllus, Duabanga grandiflora and Musa spp. which are likely to be important food resources for the cave nectar bat. Discussion Many native plant species that had not been reported in previous dietary studies of E. spelaea were detected in this study including Bauhinia strychnoidea and Urophyllum leucophlaeum, suggesting that E. spelaea remains a crucial pollinator for these plants even in highly disturbed habitats. The detection of many introduced plant species in the bat faeces indicates that E. spelaea are exploiting them, particularly Xanthostemon chrysanthus, as food resources in urban area. Commercial food crops were detected from all of the faecal samples, suggesting that E. spelaea feed predominantly on the crops particularly jackfruit and banana and play a significant role in pollination of economically important plants. Ferns and figs were also detected in the faeces of E. spelaea suggesting future research avenues to determine whether the ‘specialised nectarivorous’ E. spelaea feed opportunistically on other parts of plants.

Background. Intense landscaping often alters the plant composition in urban areas. Knowing which plant species that pollinators are visiting in urban areas is necessary for understanding how landscaping impacts biodiversity and associated ecosystem services. The cave nectar bat, Eonycteris spelaea, is an important pollinator for many plants and is often recorded in human-dominated habitats. Previous studies of the diet of E. spelaea relied on morphological identification of pollen grains found in faeces and on the body of bats and by necessity disregarded other forms of digested plant material present in the faeces (i.e., plant juice and remnants). The main objective of this study was to examine the diet of the nectarivorous bat, E. spelaea, roosting in an urban cave at Batu Caves, Peninsular Malaysia by identifying the plant material present in the faeces of bats using DNA metabarcoding. Methods. Faeces were collected under the roost of E. spelaea once a week from December 2015 to March 2016. Plant DNA was extracted from the faeces, PCR amplified at ITS2 and rbcL regions and mass sequenced. The resultant plant OTU were searched against NCBI GenBank for identification. Results. A total of 55 species of plants were detected from faeces of E. spelaea including Artocarpus heterophyllus, Duabanga grandiflora and Musa spp. which are likely to be important food resources for the cave nectar bat. Discussion. Many native plant species that had not been reported in previous dietary studies of E. spelaea were detected in this study including Bauhinia strychnoidea and Urophyllum leucophlaeum, suggesting that E. spelaea remains a crucial pollinator for these plants even in highly disturbed habitats. The detection of many introduced plant species in the bat faeces indicates that E. spelaea are exploiting them, particularly Xanthostemon chrysanthus, as food resources in urban area. Commercial food crops were detected from all of the faecal samples, suggesting that E. spelaea feed predominantly on the crops particularly jackfruit and banana and play a significant role in pollination of economically important plants. Ferns and figs were also detected in the faeces of E. spelaea suggesting future research avenues to determine whether the “specialised nectarivorous” E. spelaea feed opportunistically on other parts of plants.

We studied the foraging behaviour of the dawn bat Eonycteris spelaea, a cave roosting nectarivore widespread in SE Asia, and principal pollinator of economically important crops. We radio-tracked 17 individuals for five to 19 nights over a three month period. The bats were from three cave colonies in agricultural habitats in southern Thailand. They traveled between one and 17.9 km ( ± SD: 4.4 km ± 5.07, median = 2.34) from their roosting cave to food sources. The mean home-range size of the individuals varied with the method used in its calculation from 518.4 ha (100% Minimum Convex Polygon, MCP) to 564.5 ha (100% Local Convex Hull method, LoCoH) and 460.8 ha (95% Kernel density estimation, KDE). The mean size of foraging areas used by the bats also varied according to the method of calculation from 14.26 ha (100% MCP), 13.25 ha (100% LoCoH) and 38.52 ha (95% KDE) and accounted for 21.9%, 20.08% and 40.5% of the respective home-range size. The bats foraged in one to three foraging areas each night. The gr...

The stable microclimate in caves provides a relatively constant habitat for many bat species in the Philippines, but human encroachment continues to disrupt this habitat and imperil many of the species roosting in the caves. In South central Mindanao, the diversity and conservation status of cave bats remain undocumented and unexplored. We employed mist-netting to capture bats from five different caves within the town of Kabacan, northern Cotabato, Philippines. A total of 14 bat species were identified including the Philippine endemics Hipposideros pygmaeus and Ptenochirus jagori and the threatened Megaerops wetmorei. However, despite the declining conservation status of the bats, local disturbance such as bat hunting for bush meat and unregulated tourism are currently taking place in the caves. Large species such as Eonycteris spelaea and Rousettus amplexicaudatus are killed almost every day for food and trade. Therefore, the high species richness, and the presence of endemic and threatened species coupled with the occurrence of anthropogenic disturbances in caves suggests the need for an urgent and effective conservation intervention involving the local government and public community.